In the field of plastic and reconstructive surgery, the loss of organs or tissues caused by diseases or injuries has resulted in challenges, such as donor shortage and immunosuppression. In recent years, with the development of regenerative medicine, the decellularization-recellularization strategy seems to be a promising and attractive method to resolve these difficulties. The decellularized extracellular matrix contains no cells and genetic materials, while retaining the complex ultrastructure, and it can be used as a scaffold for cell seeding and subsequent transplantation, thereby promoting the regeneration of diseased or damaged tissues and organs. This review provided an overview of decellularization-recellularization technique, and mainly concentrated on the application of decellularization-recellularization technique in the field of plastic and reconstructive surgery, including the remodeling of skin, nose, ears, face, and limbs. Finally, we proposed the challenges in and the direction of future development of decellularization-recellularization technique in plastic surgery.
Tissue Engineering/methods* ; Tissue Scaffolds/chemistry* ; Surgery, Plastic ; Regenerative Medicine/methods* ; Extracellular Matrix

Hydrogels/therapeutic use* ; Tissue Engineering ; Gelatin ; Intervertebral Disc/surgery* ; Methacrylates ; Tissue Scaffolds

Gelatin microspheres were discussed as a scaffold material for bone tissue engineering, with the advantages of its porosity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and biosafety highlighted. This review discusses how bone regeneration is aided by the three fundamental components of bone tissue engineering-seed cells, bioactive substances, and scaffold materials-and how gelatin microspheres can be employed for in vitro seed cell cultivation to ensure efficient expansion. This review also points out that gelatin microspheres are advantageous as drug delivery systems because of their multifunctional nature, which slows drug release and improves overall effectiveness. Although gelatin microspheres are useful for bone tissue creation, the scaffolds that take into account their porous structure and mechanical characteristics might be difficult to be created. This review then discusses typical techniques for creating gelatin microspheres, their recent application in bone tissue engineering, as well as possible future research directions.
Tissue Engineering/methods* ; Tissue Scaffolds/chemistry* ; Gelatin/chemistry* ; Microspheres ; Bone and Bones ; Porosity

3D bioprinting technology is a rapidly developing technique that employs bioinks containing biological materials and living cells to construct biomedical products. However, 3D-printed tissues are static, while human tissues are in real-time dynamic states that can change in morphology and performance. To improve the compatibility between in vitro and in vivo environments, an in vitro tissue engineering technique that simulates this dynamic process is required. The concept of 4D printing, which combines "3D printing + time" provides a new approach to achieving this complex technique. 4D printing involves applying one or more smart materials that respond to stimuli, enabling them to change their shape, performance, and function under the corresponding stimulus to meet various needs. This article focuses on the latest research progress and potential application areas of 4D printing technology in the cardiovascular system, providing a theoretical and practical reference for the development of this technology.
Humans ; Tissue Engineering/methods* ; Bioprinting/methods* ; Printing, Three-Dimensional ; Cardiovascular System ; Tissue Scaffolds

OBJECTIVE: To review the research progress of design of bone scaffolds with different single cell structures. METHODS: The related literature on the study of bone scaffolds with different single cell structures at home and abroad in recent years was extensively reviewed, and the research progress was summarized. RESULTS: The single cell structure of bone scaffold can be divided into regular cell structure, irregular cell structure, cell structure designed based on topology optimization theory, and cell structure designed based on triply periodic minimal surface. Different single cell structures have different structural morphology and geometric characteristics, and the selection of single cell structure directly determines the mechanical properties and biological properties of bone scaffold. It is very important to choose a reasonable cell structure for bone scaffold to replace the original bone tissue. CONCLUSION Bone scaffolds have been widely studied, but there are many kinds of bone scaffolds at present, and the optimization of single cell structure should be considered comprehensively, which is helpful to develop bone scaffolds with excellent performance and provide effective support for bone tissue.
Bone and Bones ; Tissue Scaffolds

OBJECTIVE: To summarize the influence of microstructure on performance of triply-periodic minimal surface (TPMS) bone scaffolds. METHODS: The relevant literature on the microstructure of TPMS bone scaffolds both domestically and internationally in recent years was widely reviewed, and the research progress in the imfluence of microstructure on the performance of bone scaffolds was summarized. RESULTS: The microstructure characteristics of TPMS bone scaffolds, such as pore shape, porosity, pore size, curvature, specific surface area, and tortuosity, exert a profound influence on bone scaffold performance. By finely adjusting the above parameters, it becomes feasible to substantially optimize the structural mechanical characteristics of the scaffold, thereby effectively preempting the occurrence of stress shielding phenomena. Concurrently, the manipulation of these parameters can also optimize the scaffold's biological performance, facilitating cell adhesion, proliferation, and growth, while facilitating the ingrowth and permeation of bone tissue. Ultimately, the ideal bone fusion results will obtain. CONCLUSION The microstructure significantly and substantially influences the performance of TPMS bone scaffolds. By deeply exploring the characteristics of these microstructure effects on the performance of bone scaffolds, the design of bone scaffolds can be further optimized to better match specific implantation regions.
Tissue Scaffolds/chemistry* ; Tissue Engineering/methods* ; Bone and Bones ; Porosity

3D printing technology has great advantages in small batch and personalized customization, so it has attracted much attention in the biomedical field. The consumables available for 3D printing include polymer, metal, ceramic and derived materials. Biomedical ceramics, with high melting point and poor toughness, are the most difficult materials to be used in 3D printing. The progress of 3D printing ceramic preparation process using ceramic powder, ceramic slurry, ceramic wire, ceramic film and other different raw materials as consumables are reviewed, and the surface roughness, size, density and other parameters of ceramics prepared by SLS, 3DP, DIW, IJP, SL, DLP, FDM, LOM and other different processes are compared. The study also summarizes the clinical application status of 3D printed bioceramics in the field of hard tissue repair such as bone tissue engineering scaffolds and dental prostheses. The SL ceramic additive manufacturing technology based on the principle of UV polymerization has better manufacturing precision, forming quality and the ability to prepare large-size parts, and can also endow bioceramics with better biological properties, mechanical properties, antibacterial, tumor treatment and other functions by doping trace nutrients and surface functional modification. Compared with the traditional subtractive manufacturing process, the bioceramics prepared by 3D printing not only have good mechanical properties, but also often have better biocompatibility and osteoconductivity.
Bone and Bones ; Ceramics ; Printing, Three-Dimensional ; Tissue Engineering ; Tissue Scaffolds

Silk fibroin (SF) as a natural biopolymer has become a popular material for biomedical applications due to its minimal immunogenicity, tunable biodegradability, and high biocompatibility. Nowadays, various techniques have been developed for the applications of SF in bioengineering. Most of the literature reviews focus on the SF-based biomaterials and their different forms of applications such as films, hydrogels, and scaffolds. SF is also valuable as a coating on other substrate materials for biomedicine; however, there are few reviews related to SF-coated biomaterials. Thus, in this review, we focused on the surface modification of biomaterials using SF coatings, demonstrated their various preparation methods on substrate materials, and introduced the latest procedures. The diverse applications of SF coatings for biomedicine are discussed, including bone, ligament, skin, mucosa, and nerve regeneration, and dental implant surface modification. SF coating is conducive to inducing cell adhesion and migration, promoting hydroxyapatite (HA) deposition and matrix mineralization, and inhibiting the Notch signaling pathway, making it a promising strategy for bone regeneration. In addition, SF-coated composite scaffolds can be considered prospective candidates for ligament regeneration after injury. SF coating has been proven to enhance the mechanical properties of the substrate material, and render integral stability to the dressing material during the regeneration of skin and mucosa. Moreover, SF coating is a potential strategy to accelerate nerve regeneration due to its dielectric properties, mechanical flexibility, and angiogenesis promotion effect. In addition, SF coating is an effective and popular means for dental implant surface modification to promote osteogenesis around implants made of different materials. Thus, this review can be of great benefit for further improvements in SF-coated biomaterials, and will undoubtedly contribute to clinical transformation in the future.
Biocompatible Materials/chemistry* ; Silk/chemistry* ; Fibroins/pharmacology* ; Dental Implants ; Osteogenesis ; Tissue Scaffolds/chemistry* ; Tissue Engineering/methods*

Collagen, which widely exists in skin, bone, muscle and other tissues, is a major structural protein in mammalian extracellular matrix. It participates in cell proliferation, differentiation, migration and signal transmission, plays an important role in tissue support and repair and exerts a protective effect. Collagen is widely used in tissue engineering, clinical medicine, food industry, packaging materials, cosmetics and medical beauty due to its good biological characteristics. This paper reviews the biological characteristics of collagen and its application in bioengineering research and development in recent years. Finally, we prospect the future application of collagen as a biomimetic material.
Animals ; Collagen/analysis* ; Tissue Engineering/methods* ; Extracellular Matrix/metabolism* ; Biomimetic Materials/chemistry* ; Bone and Bones ; Tissue Scaffolds ; Mammals/metabolism*

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the preparation of decellularized small intestinal submucosa (dSIS) sponge scaffolds with chelated strontium (Sr) ions at different pH values, and to select the appropriate pH values for synthesizing Sr/dSIS scaffolds using the physicochemical properties and biocompatibility of the scaffolds as evaluation indexes. METHODS: (1) Sr/dSIS scaffolds preparation and grouping: After mixing dSIS solution and strontium chloride solution in equal volumes, adjusting pH of the solution to 3, 5, 7, and 9 respectively, porous scaffolds were prepared by freeze-drying method after full reaction at 37℃, which were named Sr/dSIS-3, -5, -7, and -9 respectively, and the dSIS scaffolds were used as the control group. (2) Physicochemical property evaluation: The bulk morphology of the scaffolds was observed in each group, the microscopic morphology analyzed by scanning electron microscopy, and the porosity and pore size determined, the surface elements analyzed by energy spectroscopy, the structure of functional groups analyzed by infrared spectroscopy, the chelation rate determined by atomic spectrophotometry, the water absorption rate detected by using specific gravity method, and the compression strength evaluated by universal mechanical testing machine.(3) Biocompatibility evaluation: The cytotoxicity and proliferative effect to bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) of each group were evaluated by Calcein-AM/PI double staining method. RESULTS: Scanning electron microscopy showed that the scaffolds of each group had an interconnected three-dimensional porous structure with no statistical difference in pore size and porosity. Energy spectrum analysis showed that strontium could be detected in Sr/dSIS-5, -7 and -9 groups, and strontium was uniformly distributed in the scaffolds. Functional group analysis further supported the formation of chelates in the Sr/dSIS-5, -7 and -9 groups. Chelation rate analysis showed that the Sr/dSIS-7 group had the highest strontium chelation rate, which was statistically different from the other groups (P < 0.05). The scaffolds in all the groups had good water absorption. The scaffolds in Sr/dSIS-5, -7 and -9 groups showed significantly improved mechanical properties compared with the control group (P < 0.05). The scaffolds in all the groups had good biocompatibility, and the Sr/dSIS-7 group showed the best proliferation of BMSCs. CONCLUSION When pH was 7, the Sr/dSIS scaffolds showed the highest strontium chelation rate and the best proliferation effect of BMSCs, which was the ideal pH value for the preparation of the Sr/dSIS scaffolds.
Tissue Scaffolds/chemistry* ; Biocompatible Materials ; Strontium/pharmacology* ; Ions ; Hydrogen-Ion Concentration ; Tissue Engineering/methods* ; Porosity