As cell aggregates in three-dimensional culture derived from primary tissues or stem cells, organoids possess the ability to self-organize into organotypic structures, mimic the cellular microenvironment, and represent tissue physiology. The thyroid′s follicular tissue plays a crucial role in thyroid hormone biosynthesis. Despite prolonged in vitro expansion of thyroid follicles from adult tissues and pluripotent stem cells have been expanded for a long time, the development of thyroid organoid technology still encounters numerous challenges. Establishing a comprehensive thyroid organoid that closely mimics the human body′s actual conditions remains a research challenge. This article reviews the development process of thyroid, the related applications of existing thyroid organoid models and the methods employed in the construction.

Diabetes mellitus(DM)is a chronic metabolic disease characterized by sustained elevation of blood glucosedue toin sulin resistance and islet β cell damage.Rheb1 regulates cell growth and metabolism,promotes islet β cell growth,proliferation and insulin secretion through the mTORC1 pathway,affects the function of vascular endothelial cells,macrophages and glomerular podocytes,and participates in the occurrence and development of atherosclerosis and diabetic kidney disease.This article reviews the research progress on the role of Rheb1 in DM and its complications.