Africa ; Altruism ; Biology ; Europe ; Gabon ; History, 19th Century ; History, 20th Century ; Humans ; Philately ; Philosophy, Medical ; history ; Tropical Medicine ; history

In Classical Greece, works defining the nature of art appeared in the various disciplines like medicine, rhetoric, dietetics, architecture and painting. Hippocratic authors tried to show that an art of medicine existed indeed. They contrasted the concept of art with that of chance, not experience that Plato and Aristotle distinguished from art. In fact there are similarities and discrepancies between Hippocratic epistemology and Platoic epistemology. Hippocratic authors maintained that the products of chance were not captured by art. They distinguished the domain of art charactered by explanatory knowledge and prediction from the domain of chance ruled by the unexplained and the unforeseeable. They minimized the role of luck and believed the role of art. Hippocratic authors thought that professional ability contained both knowledge and experience. In Hippocratic corpus, experience is a synonym of competence and usually has a positive meaning. But Plato gave empirical knowledge the disdainful sense and decided a ranking between two types of knowledge. Both Hippocratic authors and Plato held that a genuine art had connection with explanatory knowledge of the nature of its subject matter. A common theme that goes through arguments about art-chance and art-chance is the connection between art and nature. Hippocratic authors and Plato regarded art as a highly systematic process. Art provides us with general and explanatory knowledge of human nature. Art and nature is a mutual relationship. The systematic understanding of nature helps us gain the exactness of art and an exact art helps us understand nature well.
*Art/history ; Greece ; Hippocratic Oath ; History, Ancient ; Humans ; Philosophy, Medical/*history

The identity of the author's opponents of On Ancient Medicine is an attractive and problematic question. In 1963, Lloyd suggested that the author was attacking Philolaus or medical thinkers influenced by him. In 1998, Vegetty argued that the author's attack was directed at Empedocles himself. But Lloyd's hypothesis need to solve Philolaus' paradox and there is a strong evidence that the author is not criticizing a specific text or thinker at all, but rather a general trend or tendency in the medicine of his time. It is that the author regularly refers to the opponents in the plural(chh. 1, 13, 15, 20). Jouanna in his introduction Bude edition(p. 18) supposes that the author means to say that he has completed his discussion of his initially announced opponents and that he is now launching an independent criticism of philosophical medicine in general, as if there is no essential connection between the two groups. But the distinction between the polemic of chh 1-19 and that of chapter 20 is largely a matter of emphasis. In chh 1-19 the author focuses on the aspect of the opponents' causal reductionism, i.e. reduction of the causes and cures of disease to a few factors. And in chapter 20 he steps back to discuss more general physis theory on which such a position was based. At any rate, We can readily see that initial opponents and the thinkers of chapter 20 at least belong the same intellectual milieu. The answer to the question "Who is attacked in On Ancient Medicine?" is not a specific thinker or different groups, but all those who attempted to reduce the cause of disease to a few factors, and to base their medical practice on a theory of the human physis. An opinion that this work attacked a special thinker involves some of the same pitfalls as the traditional Hippocratic question.
Authorship/*history ; History, 19th Century ; Humans ; Philosophy, Medical/*history

King Jungjo who introduced the advent of cultural renaissance of Chosun Dynasty as little been known about his work in medicine. With a wide knowledge in medicine, he was the only one among the kings who wrote a book on medicine, called "SueMinMyoJeon". In this paper, his perspective on medicine will be looked into based on "The Annals of the Chosun Dynasty", "Seungjeongwon Ilgi", "Hong Je jun Se", "KukGoBoGam", "Ildkrok", "JeJungShinPyun", "SueMinMyoJeon" etc. King Jungo valued empiricism in the field of medicine. He deepened understandings in medicine while taking care of King Youngjo, the late king. And it led him to author "SueMinMyoJeon" himself, and further ordered the publications of "JeJungShinPyun" "MaGuaHeoiTong". These two books were conducted to include empirical cases of folklore remedy. King Jungjo's medical philosophy can be epitomized in filial piety and realization of people-serving politics, which are the essentials of Confucianism. His filial piety towards the late king, Youngjo and his mother is shown in his devotion when taking care of them. Especially the way he examined the differentiation of diseases and corresponding treatments is well described in "The Annals of the Chosun Dynasty". "JeJungShinPyun" was also published and it came handy for folk villagers in times of medical needs. Later this book influenced "BangYakHaepPyun" by Hwang Do Yeon. King Jungjo emphasized pragmatism in spreading medical knowledges, thus removing the theoretical contents that are related to Taoism, especially the ones on alchemy from "DongEuiBoGam", when publishing "SueMinMyoJeon". Even the excerpts from "SoMun" were taken out, if not practical. King Jungjo, however, discussed the importance of healthy regimen and mentioned himself practicing it from the book "IlDeukLok", which seems to be the only book that derailed from the pragmatistic track. King Jungjo put emphasis on consistency between diagnosis and treatment. In diagnosing, Meridian pulse was taken important as a means of finding the origin of disease, while deploring how doctors then neglected to study.
History, 18th Century ; Humans ; Korea ; Medicine, Korean Traditional/*history ; Philosophy, Medical/*history ; Reference Books, Medical

After conducting comparative research into the process of forming the Theory of Constitution in Ancient Western Medicine and that of Four Trigrams Constitution(Sasang Constitution) in Korean Medicine and contents of two Theories of Constitution in terms of medical history, both theories were found to be formed by an interaction between philosophy and medicine, followed by a combination of the two, on a philosophical basis. The Theory of Constitution in Ancient Western Medicine began with the Theory of Four Elements presented by Empedocles, followed by the Theory of Four Humors presented by Hippocrates and the Theory of Four Temperaments by Galenos, forming and developing the Theory of Constitution. After the Middle Ages, there was no significant advance in the Theory of Constitution by modern times ; however, it developed into the theory of constitution type of Kretschmer and others after the 19th century and into the scientific theory of constitution based on genetics presented by Garrod and others early in the 20th century. The Theory of Four Trigrams Constitution began with the Theory of Constitution in Huangdi Neijing, followed by developments and influences of existing medicine called beginning, restoration, and revival periods and DongeuisoosebowonSaSangChoBonGwon based on the original philosophy of Four Trigrams presented by Lee Je-ma, which is found in GyeokChiGo, DongMuYuGo and so on, ultimately forming and developing into the Theory of Four Trigrams Constitution in Dongeuisoosebowon. Recently, a lot of research is being conducted into making it objective in order to achieve reproducibility in diagnosis and so forth of Four Trigrams Constitution.
*Body Constitution ; *Cross-Cultural Comparison ; Genetics/*history ; Greek World/history ; History, 19th Century ; History, 20th Century ; History, Ancient ; History, Medieval ; Humans ; Medicine, Korean Traditional/*history ; Philosophy, Medical/*history ; *Temperament

It is a one-sided view to find the greatness of Hippocrates just in seeking after scientific medicine(medicina scientia) and sublating superstitious treatment. The scientific medicine did not begin with him, and the succeeding generations of him were not one and the same in opinions. For example, there were the confrontations between the school of Kos and that of Knidos in the very age of Hippocrates, as well as the opposition of rationalism and empiricism. The school of Kos was alleged to succeed the tradition of Hippocrates, taking into consideration individual physical conditions and being based on the principle of various clinical methods of physical therapy assuming chronical extension. On the contrary, the school of Knidos tended to define the diseases in simple aspects, paying no much attention to the difference of physical conditions and developmental stages of illness. Futhermore, the latter grasped the diseases rather in the point of individual organs than the disorder of physical state of the body. It can be said that the anatomical knowledge was more useful for the school of Knidos. The difference between the two schools can also be found in what purpose the medicine sought after. While Hippocrates attached much importance to physical therapy and made the people including the poor as object of medical treatment. there were doctors in no small number, we can suppose, in pursuit of money, power, worldly glory. As time passed, however, the two schools gradually got similar to each other, the difference of them reduced as well as the tradition of Hippocrates faded. The opposition between rationalism and empiricism in the Hellenistic Age shared, in some aspect, the difference of Kos and Knidos. According to Celsus, the conflict between rationalism and empiricism did not refer to pharmacy or anatomy, but just to diet. The rationalism materialized various methods of therapy considering environmental elements as well as individual physical conditions, but the empiricism in reality tended to expedite simplification of treatment. This tendency of simplification of the latter corresponded to the contemporary need of society, that is, speedy and effective treatment for the wounded in war or for epidemic in the army, farms of collective labour or much crowded cities. The bigger the groups were, the more the methods of treatment got simplified, individual conditions not much accounted. Then, the empiricism came to be united with anatomy, as the anatomy, being much developed in the process of curing the wounded in war, goes with simplification of medical treatment in the hospital of large scale. It can be said that the origin of simplified definition of diseases goes back far to the school of Knidos. On the other hand, in Hippocrates the drugs were in contrast to the diet. While the diet was to help health and rehabilitate physical conditions, the drugs were to result in strong effects of change. The drugs like as poison, eye-salve, ointment were to be made use f for rapid, effective change of physical state or for the treatment of a concrete, limited part of the body, These drugs were also much developed in the Hellenistic Age of the state of chronic war. In initial stages, the toxical drugs as well as the anatomy and surgical operations must have been developed on peaceful purpose, such like as 'theriaca' detoxicating(antidoting) animal's poison, or for easing childbirth. With the increasement of social inequality and unexhausted human desire, however, the toxical drugs or anatomical knowledges got to be used for undesirable purposes. Thus, we can not estimate Hippocrates simply in the point whether he developed scientific medicine or not. The great fame of Hippocrates could be found rather in his method of medical treatment as well as the principle of medicine, as he believed that the medicine should not be exploited for worldly power or wealth but for the convenience of all the people. He pursued healthy life matching to natural state(physis) and took much account of different physical states of individual to embody various methods of treatment, which presupposed chronic delay. The opposite to the Hippocratic medicine is called for the wounded by war, or the collective labourer of large farm with intensive labour exploitation. The medical treatment for them assumed anatomical surgery and drugs of rapid, strong effect.
Greek World/*history ; *History, Ancient ; Humans ; Philosophy, Medical/*history ; Physical Therapy Modalities/history

For the purpose of understanding the feature of medicine in the late Chosun Dynasty, I investigated Shin Man(1620-1669)'s life and his idea of medicine in Juchonsinbang. Shin Man was a scholar who lived in the middle of the Chosun dynasty. He was famous for his resistance against Ching dynasty in Byeongjahoran, and for his chivalrous spirit. He was daring, inflexible and unrestricted by nature. And his character was reflected in his medical ideas. He studied along Song Si-yeol and started his official career together. Both worked for King Hyojong who strongly wanted to send an expedition to conquer the North. But after the sudden death of King Hyojong, the project to conquer the North had went for nothing. And Shin Man went back to the rural life in Juchon, Jinjam. On the one hand, he lived the life of pursuit of learning Seong Confucianism in Juchon, and on the other hand, he wrote the original form of Juchonsinbang. Shin Man wanted to establish and spread the universal and popularized medicine. So he set a goal to publish a simple and plain prescription book, which corresponds to his idea of medicine which deals with curing people. The currently remaining editions of Juchonsinbang are 3 types. One is the lead printed edition. The others are the dissimilar 2 transcribed editions. There are considerable differences between the lead printed edition and the transcribed editions. The lead printed edition focused on the human being, and divided the category of human being as 3 parts, which are infant, womenkind and adult. Whereas the transcribed editions focused on disorders and aimed at universalization and simplification of medicine. Thus the main viewpoint of medicine changed from disorders to human being. By the way, there are many occult prescriptions in Juchonsinbang. And they aren't distorted with the standpoint of those days. While the time of writing Juchonsinbang has many questionable problems. And there is no historical material which shows the exact time of writing.
Drug Prescriptions/history ; History, 17th Century ; Humans ; Korea ; Philosophy, Medical/history ; *Reference Books, Medical

Lee Je-ma (1837-1900) was a prominent scholar as well as an Korean physician. He classified every people into four distinctive types: greater yang[tai yang] person, lesser yin[shao yin] person, greater yin[tai yin] person, lesser yin[shao yin] person. This theory would dictate proper treatment for each type in accordance with individual differences of physical and temperament features. Using these four types he created The Medical Science of Four Types. This article is intended to look into the connection between Lee Je-Ma's 'The Medical Science of Four Types' and 'The Modern' with organizing his ideas about the human body and the human being. Through The Modern, the theory of human being underwent a complete change. Human being in The Premodern, which was determined by sex, age and social status has been changed to the individual human being, which is featured by equality. Lee Je-Ma's medical theory of The Medical Science of Four Types would be analyzed as follow. His concept of human body is oriented toward observable objectivity. But on the other hand it still remains transcendent status of medical science, which is subordinated by philosophy. According to Lee Je-Ma's theory of human being, human is an equal individual in a modern way of thinking, not as a part of hierarchical group. But on the other hand, it still remains incomplete from getting rid of morality aspect that includes virtue and vice in the concept of human body. The common factors in Lee Je-Ma's ideas about the human body and the human being is 'Dualism of mind and body' that means all kinds of status and results depends on each individual.As is stated above, Lee Je-Ma's medical theory has many aspects of The Modern and it proves that Korean traditional medicine could be modernized by itself.
Philosophy, Medical/*history ; Mind-Body Relations (Metaphysics) ; Medicine, Oriental Traditional/*history ; Korea ; Humans ; *Human Body ; History, 19th Century

Through the whole history of medicine, there runs a long struggle between two principal tendencies-empiricism and rationalism. The empirical trend lays its emphasis on "experience" for the cure of the sick. The rationalistic trend lays its main emphasis on "mechanism" for the causes of diseases. The term "evidence-based medicine (EBM) ", defined as "the conscious, explicit and judicious use of the best current evidence in making decisions about the individual patients", was introduced about ten years ago. The proponents has been described EBM as a "paradigm shift" that will change medical practice in the years ahead. But there has been considerable debate about the value of EBM. The modern medicine, following philosophy of modern science such as the 'realism controlled by empiricism', has developed biomedical model. But the EBM wrapped with clinical epidemiology and statistics, represents response of empiricism to the rationalism (realism). The roots of EBM extend back at least as far as the Paris clinical school, and the work of Pierre Louis in Paris in the early 19th century. Is EBM a paradigm shift? To answer this question, We have to specify the alternative with which we are comparing EBM. The alternative to EBM is the basic science approach: studying the pathophysiolological mechanism of the body. But EBM is so clearly intertwined with and complementary to the basic science that it would make little sense to see EBM as a paradigm shift away from basic science. In a sense, evidence-based medicine shows only methodological contribution aimed at improving the gathering and sorting of the best information published by biomedical scientists and clinical epidemiologists for use in clinical practice. Although EBM and the traditional medicine embody different approaches, this does not mean that they are competitors. In fact, the two approach need each; neither can stand alone for the development of clinical practice.
English Abstract ; Evidence-Based Medicine/*history ; History, 19th Century ; History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; Philosophy, Medical/*history

The body has been an intense focus of attention since the 1990s both in academic and mundane discourse. In philosophy, literature critique, sociology and anthropology the body has been found to have various implications and auras around it. I try to explain the body as the subject of medicine rather philosophically, in terms of nature, culture and phenomena. And then I look into the Korean body of the late 19th century when western biomedicine was first introduced. The Korean body was encountering traditional and modern biomedical medicines in three different spaces i.e., corporal, social and moral. The corporal space was the space into which direct intervention such as surgery was performed. The body was also situated in the social space where imperative social measures such as sanitation and sterilization was imposed. The body also had the moral space, invasion into which evoked great moral upheaval. It was when the government ordered the public to cut the long and bound hair, which had long been the symbol of their identity. Reflecting upon the philosophical perspectives and examining concrete cases of the encounters of the body with the two medical systems, I argue that we should have new perspective that embodies the historical and phenomenological experience of the body.
English Abstract ; History, 19th Century ; History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; *Human Body ; Korea ; Medicine, Oriental Traditional/*history ; Philosophy, Medical/*history ; Western World/*history