As we learn more about parasites in ancient civilizations, data becomes available that can be used to see how infection may change over time. The aim of this study is to assess how common certain intestinal parasites were in China and Korea in the past 2000 years, and make comparisons with prevalence data from the 20th century. This allows us to go on to investigate how and why changes in parasite prevalence may have occurred at different times. Here we show that Chinese liver fluke (Clonorchis sinensis) dropped markedly in prevalence in both Korea and China earlier than did roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides) and whipworm (Trichuris trichiura). We use historical evidence to determine why this was the case, exploring the role of developing sanitation infrastructure, changing use of human feces as crop fertilizer, development of chemical fertilizers, snail control programs, changing dietary preferences, and governmental public health campaigns during the 20th century.
Ascaris ; Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; China ; Civilization ; Fasciola hepatica ; Feces ; Fertilizers ; Humans ; Korea ; Mummies ; Parasites ; Prevalence ; Public Health ; Sanitation ; Snails ; Trichuris

The aim of this study is to determine the species of parasites that affected the inhabitants of the city of Acre on the coast of the eastern Mediterranean during the Ottoman Period. This is the first archaeological study of parasites in the Ottoman Empire. We analysed sediment from a latrine dating to the early 1800s for the presence of helminth eggs and protozoan parasites which caused dysentery. The samples were examined using light microscopy and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. We found evidence for roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides), whipworm (Trichuris trichiura), fish tapeworm (Dibothriocephalus sp.), Taenia tapeworm (Taenia sp.), lancet liver fluke (Dicrocoelium dendriticum), and the protozoa Giardia duodenalis and Entamoeba histolytica. The parasite taxa recovered demonstrate the breadth of species present in this coastal city. We consider the effect of Ottoman Period diet, culture, trade and sanitation upon risk of parasitism in this community living 200 years ago.
Cestoda ; Diet ; Dysentery ; Eggs ; Entamoeba histolytica ; Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay ; Fasciola hepatica ; Giardia lamblia ; Helminths ; Microscopy ; Ottoman Empire ; Ovum ; Parasites ; Sanitation ; Taenia ; Toilet Facilities

A clonorchiasis case in a captive leopard cat, Prionailurus bengalensis euptilurus, was confirmed by ultrasonographic findings and egg morphologies found in the bile juice sample in the Korea. The leopard cat was introduced from the wild habitat of Gyeongsangnam-do, to Cheongju Zoo in Cheongju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, Korea in August 2014. Physical examinations were basically performed for quarantine and check-up health. The cat was comparatively good in health except anorexia. The cyst-like bile duct dilation and the increased echogenicity of gall bladder wall and hepatic parenchyma were observed by ultrasonography. Ultrasound-guided needle biopsy was conducted for collecting bile juice and the specimens were observed under light microscope. The numerous small trematode eggs were detected in the bile juice sample of the light microscopy. The eggs were 25–33 (28±3) μm by 18–22 (20±1) μm in size and showed typical characteristics of Clonorchis sinensis egg, i.e., a dominantly developed operculum, shoulder rim and dust-like wrinkles in surface. To treat the liver fluke infection, 20 mg/kg of praziquantel was orally administered only once to the case. Follow-up studies including fecal examinations were conducted during 2 years after treatment. But no more eggs were detected from the case. In the present study, we described the first clonorchiasis case of leopard cat, which was confirmed by ultrasonographic findings and egg morphologies from the bile juice sample in Korea.
Animals ; Anorexia ; Bile ; Bile Ducts ; Biopsy, Needle ; Cats ; Chungcheongbuk-do ; Clonorchiasis ; Clonorchis sinensis ; Ecosystem ; Eggs ; Fasciola hepatica ; Follow-Up Studies ; Gyeongsangnam-do ; Korea ; Microscopy ; Ovum ; Panthera ; Physical Examination ; Praziquantel ; Quarantine ; Republic of Korea ; Shoulder ; Ultrasonography ; Urinary Bladder

Clonorchis sinensis is a carcinogenic human liver fluke that promotes hepatic inflammatory environments via direct contact or through their excretory-secretory products (ESPs), subsequently leading to cholangitis, periductal fibrosis, liver cirrhosis, and even cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). This study was conducted to examine the host inflammatory responses to C. sinensis ESPs and their putative protein components selected from C. sinensis expressed sequenced tag (EST) pool databases, including TGF-β receptor interacting protein 1(CsTRIP1), legumain (CsLeg), and growth factor binding protein 2 (CsGrb2). Treatment of CCA cells (HuCCT1) with the ESPs or bacterial recombinant C. sinensis proteins differentially promoted the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) as well as anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10, TGF-β1, and TGF-β2) in a time-dependent manner. In particular, recombinant C. sinensis protein treatment resulted in increase (at maximum) of ~7-fold in TGF-β1, ~30-fold in TGF-β2, and ~3-fold in TNF-α compared with the increase produced by ESPs, indicating that CsTrip1, CsLeg, and CsGrb2 function as strong inducers for secretion of these cytokines in host cells. These results suggest that C. sinensis ESPs contribute to the immunopathological response in host cells, leading to clonorchiasis-associated hepatobiliary abnormalities of greater severity.
Carrier Proteins ; Cholangiocarcinoma ; Cholangitis ; Clonorchis sinensis ; Cytokines ; Fasciola hepatica ; Fibrosis ; Humans ; Interleukin-6 ; Liver Cirrhosis

Contaminated liver fluke egg in the environment has led to the high prevalence of human opisthorchiasis associated with cholangiocarcinoma in Southeast Asia. To find the effective lessening methods of Opisthorchis viverrini eggs in the contaminated environment, we investigated the temperature conditions for killing of these trematode eggs in vitro. Numerous O. viverrini eggs were obtained in the proximal part of uteri of adult worms from experimental hamsters. Mature eggs with miracidium were allocated by experimental groups (2 control: positive and negative and 4 treatment: 50, 60, 70, and 80°C) with 0.85% saline, and treated by the experimental plan. Eggs in each experimental groups were observed under the confocal microscope after stain with Propidium Iodide (PI) to evaluate the effect of temperatures. Eggs in 70 and 80°C groups were all killed after over 10 min heated. Majority of eggs in 60°C (10, 15, and 30 min heated), 70 and 80°C (5 min heated) groups were inactivated. However in 50°C group, below half of eggs were to be killed in all time lapse (10, 15 and 30 min). In order to prevent O. viverrini infection and cholangiocarcinoma, direct treatment of sewage by heating at 70 or 80°C at least 10 min is essential. Therefore, treatment of O. viverrini eggs at a high temperature is a potential method for controlling egg contamination in sewage.
Adult ; Animals ; Asia, Southeastern ; Cholangiocarcinoma ; Cricetinae ; Eggs ; Fasciola hepatica ; Heating ; Homicide ; Hot Temperature ; Humans ; In Vitro Techniques ; Methods ; Opisthorchiasis ; Opisthorchis ; Ovum ; Prevalence ; Propidium ; Sewage ; Uterus

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is an aggressive cancer arising from epithelial cells of the bile duct. Most patients with CCA have an unresectable tumor at the time of diagnosis. In Western countries, the risk of CCA increases in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis, whereas liver fluke infection appears to be the major risk factor for CCA in Asian countries. A diagnosis of liver fluke infection often relies on stool samples, including microscopic examination, polymerase chain reaction-based assays, and fluke antigen detection. Tests of serum, saliva and urine samples are also potentially diagnostic. The presence of liver fluke along with exogenous carcinogens magnifies the risk of CCA in people living in endemic areas. The “liver fluke-cholangiocarcinoma” carcinogenesis pathways consist of mechanical damage to the bile duct epithelium, immunopathologic and cellular reactions to the liver fluke's antigens and excretory/secretory products, liver fluke-induced changes in the biliary tract microbiome and the effects of repeated treatment for liver fluke. A vaccine and novel biomarkers are needed for the primary and secondary prevention of CCA in endemic areas. Importantly, climate change exerts an effect on vector-borne parasitic diseases, and awareness of liver fluke should be enhanced in potentially migrated habitat areas.
Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; Bile Ducts ; Biliary Tract Neoplasms* ; Biliary Tract* ; Biomarkers ; Carcinogenesis ; Carcinogens ; Cholangiocarcinoma ; Cholangitis, Sclerosing ; Climate Change ; Clonorchiasis ; Diagnosis ; Ecosystem ; Epithelial Cells ; Epithelium ; Fasciola hepatica ; Humans ; Liver* ; Microbiota ; Opisthorchiasis ; Parasitic Diseases ; Risk Factors ; Saliva ; Secondary Prevention ; Trematoda

Four isoforms of calcium binding proteins containing 2 EF hand motifs and a dynein light chain-like domain in the human liver fluke Opisthorchis viverrini, namely OvCaBP1, 2, 3, and 4, were characterized. They had molecular weights of 22.7, 21.6, 23.7, and 22.5 kDa, respectively and showed 37.2–42.1% sequence identity to CaBP22.8 of O. viverrini. All were detected in 2- and 4-week-old immature and mature parasites. Additionally, OvCaBP4 was found in newly excysted juveniles. Polyclonal antibodies against each isoform were generated to detect the native proteins in parasite extracts by Western blot analysis. All OvCaBPs were detected in soluble and insoluble crude worm extracts and in the excretory-secretory product, at approximate sizes of 21–23 kDa. The ion-binding properties of the proteins were analyzed by mobility shift assays with the divalent cations Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺, and Cu²+. All OvCaBPs showed mobility shifts with Ca²⁺ and Zn²⁺. OvCaBP1 showed also positive results with Mg²⁺ and Cu²⁺. As tegumental proteins, OvCaBP1, 2, and 3 are interesting drug targets for the treatment of opisthorchiasis.
Antibodies ; Blotting, Western ; Calcium-Binding Proteins ; Cations, Divalent ; Dyneins ; EF Hand Motifs ; Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay ; Fasciola hepatica ; Humans ; Molecular Weight ; Opisthorchiasis ; Opisthorchis ; Parasites ; Protein Isoforms

Adult specimens of Echinostoma ilocanum (Garrison, 1908) Odhner, 1911 (Trematoda: Echinostomatidae) were recovered from 2 riparian people who resided along the Mekong River in Savannakhet Province, Lao PDR. In fecal examinations done by the Kato-Katz technique, they revealed echinostome eggs together with eggs of Opisthorchis viverrini (and minute intestinal fluke eggs) and hookworms. To recover the adult flukes, they were treated with praziquantel 30–40 mg/kg in a single dose and purged with magnesium salts. A total of 658 adult fluke specimens were recovered from the 2 people; 456 from case 1 and 202 from case 2. Specimens from case 1 consisted of 335 echinostomes (301 E. ilocanum and 34 species undetermined), 120 O. viverrini, and 1 Haplorchis taichui, and those from case 2 consisted of 36 E. ilocanum, 134 O. viverrini, and 32 H. taichui. Thus, the number of E. ilocanum specimens was 337 in total (average per person, 168.5). From this study, it is suggested that foodborne intestinal flukes and liver flukes are highly prevalent along the Mekong River in Savannakhet Province. The present report describes for the first time human infections with E. ilocanum in Lao PDR.
Adult ; Ancylostomatoidea ; Echinostoma ; Echinostomiasis ; Eggs ; Fasciola hepatica ; Humans ; Magnesium ; Opisthorchis ; Ovum ; Praziquantel ; Rivers ; Salts ; Trematoda

Aim of the present study was to provide presence of opisthorchiid metacercariae in cyprinid fish Leuciscus idus in Nura-Sarysu river, Kazakhstan. Infection rate of the ides by the metacercariae was 42%. The metacercariae, similar morphologically to those of the liver flukes, were found: elliptical in shape, 0.19–0.25×0.15–0.22 mm, oral and ventral suckers nearly equal size, and excretory bladder O-shape with black content, occupying posterior part of the body. The metacercariae were divided into 2 groups with differences in size and thickness of cyst wall. Adult flukes were recovered from the Syrian hamsters infected with the opisthorch metacercariae and identified with morphological characters to Opisthorchis felineus and Metorchis bilis. DNA sequences of ITS1, ITS2, and cox1 supported the taxonomic assignment.
Adult ; Base Sequence ; Fasciola hepatica ; Humans ; Kazakhstan ; Mesocricetus ; Metacercariae ; Opisthorchis ; Rivers ; Trematoda ; Urinary Bladder

A total of 44 adult or juvenile nutrias were necropsied for disease survey. A large nodule was found in the liver of a nutria. The histopathological specimen of the hepatic nodule was microscopically examined, and sectional worms were found in the bile duct. The worms showed a tegument with spines, highly branches of vitelline glands and intestine. Finally, we histopathologically confirmed fascioliasis in a wild nutria. In the present study, a case of fascioliasis in a wild nutria is first confirmed in Korea.
Adult ; Bile Ducts ; Fasciola hepatica ; Fascioliasis ; Humans ; Intestines ; Korea ; Liver ; Republic of Korea ; Spine ; Vitellins