The purpose of this article is to introduce the concept of zonal analysis in orthognathic surgical planning.Case presentation The importance of developing this concept of facial zonal analysis is because grouping together elements of aesthetic importance in a region in a systematic manner allows for accurate diagnosis and logical treatment planning. An orthognathic case presentation is described to demonstrate this concept.Discussion The three facial zones described are related in terms of the presenting problem and in relation to the changes envisaged with each planned surgical movement. The importance of developing this concept of facial zonal analysis is because grouping together elements of aesthetic importance in a region in a systematic manner allows for accurate diagnosis and logical treatment planning. Consideration is given to the negative features that require improvement and the positive features that the clinician and patient would prefer not to alter. It also provides an organised tool for postoperative comparison of results. The analysis and synthesis of the information provided from this approach can aid contemporary orthognathic surgical planning.

Background: What we think we see consists of models constructed in our brains, which may be constrained, limited and perhaps modified at a cerebral level. Patients may view their mirror image differently to how others and the clini‑ cal team view them. Understanding potential variations in perception between real and mirror images is important in clinical practice. The aims were to assess differences in self-perception between frontal facial and mirrored photo‑ graphs, comparing the results with selfie photographs. Methods: Facial photographs were taken by one investigator under standardized conditions for preclinical and clini‑ cal students. Each student took a selfie photograph at rest and smiling using his/her smartphone. A mirror image was generated for each image. Each student was shown his/her original and mirror image, without being informed which was which. For each pair of images, students were asked to choose which photograph they perceived as more attractive. A set of photographs of a male volunteer was shown to all participants, to choose either the original or mir‑ ror image as the more attractive. Results: Most observers preferred the true image of the volunteer (P < 0.05), which may be evidence that most people prefer the true image of others, which is how they normally view them. Most observers preferred their own original photograph in frontal view at rest and smiling (P< 0.05), but preferred the mirror image of their selfie photo‑ graph at rest and smiling (P < 0.05). Conclusions Significant differences in perceptions of attractiveness between true and mirror-reversed frontal and selfie images were found. Observers preferred their image the way they view themselves in a mirror. The selfie is how other people view an individual. If a selfie is flipped horizontally, that is how an individual sees themselves in a mirror. Most observers preferred the mirror image of their selfie, which is how they would view themselves in a mirror.

Background: Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) therapy gained interest among scientists following the discovery of its therapeutic potential. However, their clinical use has been hindered due to their immunogenicity and tumorigenicity. Relatively recently, it has been unveiled that the mechanism by which MSC promote healing is by secreting exosomes. This raised the interest in developing cell-free therapy, avoiding the obstacles that deterred the translation of MSC therapy into clinical practice.ReviewThis comprehensive narrative review summarises the current understanding of exosome biogenesis and content. Moreover, the existing research on exosome use in bone tissue engineering is discussed. Conclusions Exosome-based therapy may provide excellent potential in the field of bone tissue engineering and craniofacial reconstructive surgery. Further investigation is required before the technology can be translated into clinical practice.

Background: Techniques to accelerate tooth movement have been a topic of interest in orthodontics over the past decade. As orthodontic treatment time is linked to potential detrimental effects, such as increased decalcification, dental caries, root resorption, and gingival inflammation, the possibility of reducing treatment time in orthodontics may provide multiple benefits to the patient. Another reason for the surge in interest in accelerated tooth movement has been the increased interest in adult orthodontics.ReviewThis review summarizes the different methods for surgical acceleration of orthodontic tooth movement. It also describes the advantages and limitations of these techniques, including guidance for future investigations. Conclusions Optimization of the described techniques is still required, but some of the techniques appear to offer the potential for accelerating orthodontic tooth movement and improving outcomes in well-selected cases.

Background: The human mandible is variable in shape, size and position and any deviation from normal can affect the facial appearance and dental occlusion. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to determine whether the Sassouni cephalometric analysis could help predict two-dimensional mandibular shape in humans using cephalometric planes and landmarks. Materials and methods: A retrospective computerised analysis of 100 lateral cephalometric radiographs taken at Kingston Hospital Orthodontic Department was carried out. Results: Results: showed that the Euclidean straight-line mean difference between the estimated position of gonion and traced position of gonion was 7.89 mm and the Euclidean straight-line mean difference between the estimated position of pogonion and the traced position of pogonion was 11.15 mm. The length of the anterior cranial base as measured by sella-nasion was positively correlated with the length of the mandibular body gonion-menton, r = 0.381 and regression analysis showed the length of the anterior cranial base sella-nasion could be predictive of the length of the mandibular body gonion-menton by the equation 22.65 + 0.5426x, where x = length of the anterior cranial base (SN). There was a significant association with convex shaped palates and oblique shaped mandibles, p = 0.0004. Conclusions The method described in this study can be used to help estimate the position of cephalometric points gonion and pogonion and thereby sagittal mandibular length. This method is more accurate in skeletal class I cases and therefore has potential applications in craniofacial anthropology and the ‘missing mandible’ problem in forensic and archaeological reconstruction.

Background: Bone grafting has been considered the gold standard for hard tissue reconstructive surgery and is widely used for large mandibular defect reconstruction. However, the midface encompasses delicate structures that are surrounded by a complex bone architecture, which makes bone grafting using traditional methods very challenging. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a developing technology that is derived from the evolution of additive manufacturing. It enables precise development of a scaffold from different available biomaterials that mimic the shape, size, and dimension of a defect without relying only on the surgeon’s skills and capabilities, and subsequently, may enhance surgical outcomes and, in turn, patient satisfaction and quality of life.ReviewThis review summarizes different biomaterial classes that can be used in 3D bioprinters as bioinks to fabricate bone scaffolds, including polymers, bioceramics, and composites. It also describes the advantages and limitations of the three currently used 3D bioprinting technologies: inkjet bioprinting, micro-extrusion, and laser-assisted bioprinting. Conclusions Although 3D bioprinting technology is still in its infancy and requires further development and optimization both in biomaterials and techniques, it offers great promise and potential for facial reconstruction with improved outcome.

Background: The human mandible is variable in shape, size and position and any deviation from normal can affect the facial appearance and dental occlusion. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to determine whether the Sassouni cephalometric analysis could help predict two-dimensional mandibular shape in humans using cephalometric planes and landmarks. Materials and methods: A retrospective computerised analysis of 100 lateral cephalometric radiographs taken at Kingston Hospital Orthodontic Department was carried out. Results: Results: showed that the Euclidean straight-line mean difference between the estimated position of gonion and traced position of gonion was 7.89 mm and the Euclidean straight-line mean difference between the estimated position of pogonion and the traced position of pogonion was 11.15 mm. The length of the anterior cranial base as measured by sella-nasion was positively correlated with the length of the mandibular body gonion-menton, r = 0.381 and regression analysis showed the length of the anterior cranial base sella-nasion could be predictive of the length of the mandibular body gonion-menton by the equation 22.65 + 0.5426x, where x = length of the anterior cranial base (SN). There was a significant association with convex shaped palates and oblique shaped mandibles, p = 0.0004. Conclusions The method described in this study can be used to help estimate the position of cephalometric points gonion and pogonion and thereby sagittal mandibular length. This method is more accurate in skeletal class I cases and therefore has potential applications in craniofacial anthropology and the ‘missing mandible’ problem in forensic and archaeological reconstruction.

Background: Bone grafting has been considered the gold standard for hard tissue reconstructive surgery and is widely used for large mandibular defect reconstruction. However, the midface encompasses delicate structures that are surrounded by a complex bone architecture, which makes bone grafting using traditional methods very challenging. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a developing technology that is derived from the evolution of additive manufacturing. It enables precise development of a scaffold from different available biomaterials that mimic the shape, size, and dimension of a defect without relying only on the surgeon’s skills and capabilities, and subsequently, may enhance surgical outcomes and, in turn, patient satisfaction and quality of life.ReviewThis review summarizes different biomaterial classes that can be used in 3D bioprinters as bioinks to fabricate bone scaffolds, including polymers, bioceramics, and composites. It also describes the advantages and limitations of the three currently used 3D bioprinting technologies: inkjet bioprinting, micro-extrusion, and laser-assisted bioprinting. Conclusions Although 3D bioprinting technology is still in its infancy and requires further development and optimization both in biomaterials and techniques, it offers great promise and potential for facial reconstruction with improved outcome.

BACKGROUND: There is no normative craniofacial anthropometric data for the Kenyan-African population. The purpose of this investigation was to determine normative anthropometric craniofacial measurements and proportional relationships for Kenyans of African descent and to compare the data with African Americans (AA), North American Whites (NAW), and neoclassical canons. METHODS: Twenty-five direct facial anthropometric measurements, and 4 angular measurements, were taken on 72 Kenyan-African participants (age range 18–30 years) recruited at the University of Nairobi in Kenya. The data were compared with AA and NAW populations, and neoclassical canons. Descriptive statistics of the variables were computed for the study population. RESULTS: Significant differences between both Kenyan males and females were detected in forehead height (~ 5 mm greater for males, ~ 4.5 mm for females), nasal height (reduced by ~ 4 mm in males, ~ 3 mm in females), nasal width (8–9 mm greater), upper lip height (> 3 mm), and eye width (greater by ~ 3 mm) compared to NAW subjects. All vertical measurements obtained were significantly different compared with NAW. Differences were observed in comparison with AA subjects, but less marked. Mouth width was similar in all groups. Angular measurements were variable. Neoclassical canons did not apply to the Kenyan population. CONCLUSIONS: Anthropometric measurements of NAW showed clear differences when compared with the Kenyan population, and variations exist with comparative AA data. The anthropometric data in terms of linear measurements, angular measurements, and proportional values described may serve as a database for facial analysis in the Kenyan-African population.
African Americans ; Anthropometry ; Female ; Forehead ; Humans ; Kenya ; Lip ; Male ; Mouth

BACKGROUND: To test the hypothesis that in profile smiling view, for ideal aesthetics, a tangent to the labial face of the maxillary central incisor crowns should be approximately parallel to the true vertical line and thereby perpendicular to the true horizontal line. METHODS: An idealized female image was created with computer software and manipulated using the same software to construct an “ideal” female profile image with proportions, and linear and angular soft tissue measurements, based on currently accepted criteria for idealized Caucasian profiles. The maxillary incisor labial face tangent was altered in 5° increments from 70 to 120°, creating a range of images, shown in random order to 70 observers (56 lay people and 14 clinicians), who ranked the images from the most to the least attractive. The main outcome was the preference ranks of image attractiveness given by the observers. RESULTS: The most attractive inclination of a tangent to the labial face of the maxillary incisor crowns in profile view in relation to the true horizontal line was 85°, i.e. 5° retroclined from a perpendicular 90° inclination. The most attractive range appears to be between 80 and 90°. Excessive proclination appeared to be less desirable than retroclination. Beyond 105° most observers recommend treatment. CONCLUSION In natural head position, the ideal inclination of the maxillary incisor crown labial face tangent in profile view will be approximately parallel to the true vertical line and thereby approximately perpendicular to the true horizontal line.