Background: An estimated 99% of the global population lives in environments where PM2.5 levels exceed the WHO air quality guideline of 15 μg/m³. In 2018, air pollution contributed to approximately 4.2 million deaths worldwide. In Mongolia, air pollution—particularly in urban centers like Ulaanbaatar, worsens significantly during the winter season, posing a serious public health and local concern. Therefore, it is compulsory to compare the outdoor air quality in Ulaanbaatar, the capital and Darkhan city. Aim: To assess and compare the outdoor PM2.5 concentrations in Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan during the winter season. Materials and Methods: This study was conducted in Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan from December 10, 2024, to February 19, 2025. A total of 60 PurpleAir Classic+ sensors (30 per city) were installed to assess PM2.5 concentrations at 2-minute intervals. We analyzed collected data using R software. The 24-hour average PM2.5 concentrations were compared with both the Mongolian National Air Quality Standard (MNS4585:2016) and the WHO air quality guidelines (2021). Results: The 24-hour average PM2.5 concentration in Ulaanbaatar was 112.3±62.2 μg/m³, which was significantly higher than that in Darkhan (79.2±25.6 μg/m³; p<0.05). In Ulaanbaatar, the monthly averages were 119.9±67.7 μg/m³ (Decem ber), 113.5±60.8 μg/m³ (January), and 95.0±51.9 μg/m³ (February) respectively (p<0.05). In contrast, Darkhan city’s monthly average PM2.5 remained relatively close across the months: 79.1±22.2 μg/m³ (December), 78.7±28.6 μg/m³ (January), and 84.6±30.0 μg/m³ (February), with no statistical significance (p>0.05). During the study period, the 24-hour average PM2.5 concentrations exceeded the MNS4585:2016 (50 μg/m³) in 69.8% of days in Ulaanbaatar and 64.6% in Darkhan. WHO’s guideline of 15 μg/m³ was exceeded 93.4% of the time in both cities. Conclusion Darkhan city has lower PM2.5 concentrations compared to Ulaanbaatar, both cities significantly exceeded MNS4585:2016 standard and the WHO air quality guidelines (2021) during the winter months.

Background: Vaginal candidiasis is a highly prevalent infectious disease among women caused by a wide range of pathogenic organisms. Although it can be treated with standard pharmacological methods, it has detrimental effects on women’s reproductive health. The absence of research to date on the anti-vaginal inflammatory effects of Jirug-6 suppositories - a traditional formulation derived from ancient medicinal recipes and long-used in traditional mongolian medicine has provided the rationale for conducting this study. Aim: Study of the effects of Jirug-6 suppositories on the vaginal inflammatory lesion model induced by Candida albicans. Materials and Methods: To establish the vaginal inflammatory lesion model in experimental animals, the inoculum was prepared according to the McFarland standard method, and 10 µL of the inoculum was intravaginally administered daily for 4 consecutive days. Fifty-six mice with induced vaginal candidiasis were divided into 7 groups. On treatment days 1, 3, 5, 7, and 10, the vaginal cavity of the mice was washed with 100 µL of phosphate buffer. From the lavage fluid, 20 µL was collected, mixed with 480 µL of phosphate buffer, and thoroughly homogenized. Using a 20 µL micropipette, three aliquots were inoculated onto Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) medium and incubated at 37°C for 48 hours. Colonies were counted, and at the end of the experiment, serum was isolated from blood samples, and IFN-γ and IL-10 levels in the samples were quantified using ELISA. Histopathological analysis was performed on vaginal tissues from the experimental animals. Results: In the experimental animals, Jirug-6 suppositories 0.4 mg/kg dose exhibited the mildest clinical signs of hyperemia, swelling, hemorrhage, infiltration, or fluid loss into soft tissues in the vaginal and cervical regions (p<0.01). For cervical inflammation, Jirug-6 suppositories 0.4 mg/kg demonstrated a strong anti-inflammatory effect with a score of 1.99±0.78, which was comparable to the positive control group (p<0.01). In serum, the concentrations of IFN-γ and IL-10 in Jirug-6 suppositories 0.4 mg/kg were determined to be 8.18±0.61 and 7.91±1.30, respectively, showing reduced levels similar to those of the positive control group (p<0.01). Conclusions 1. Jirug-6 suppositories reduce inflammatory symptoms and suppresses fungal dissemination during the vaginal lesion model induced by C. albicans. 2. At a Jirug-6 suppositories 0.4 mg/kg demonstrates anti-inflammatory effects by increasing IFN-γ concentration and decreasing IL-10 concentration in the C. albicans-induced vaginal lesion model. Furthermore, it enhances immunity and reduces swelling during inflammation, exhibiting positive therapeutic effects against clinical symptoms.

Background: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 99 percent of the world’s population is exposed to air that exceeds WHO recommendations, with low- and middle-income countries being the most affected. The main causes of indoor air pollution include human activities such as fuel burning, cooking, cleaning, and smoking; housing characteristics such as walls, floors, ceilings, and furniture; ventilation; and outdoor air pollution. Aim : To assess PM1 and PM10 concentrations in 120 selected households in Ulaanbaatar. Materials and Methods : Indoor PM1 and PM10 concentrations were measured using Purple Air real-time sensors in randomly selected Ulaanbaatar households between October 2023 and January 2024. Supplementary data on factors affecting the PM2.5 concentration were collected via questionnaires. Each measurement was taken in 10-minute intervals, yielding 51,309 data for analysis. Results : PM1 concentrations were measured at 55.5±53.2 μg/m³ in gers, 54.9 ± 46.7 μg/m³ in houses, and 31.6±40.1 μg//m³ in apartments (p<0.001) and measuring PM10 concentrations were 110.6±108.6 μg/m³ in gers, 110.6±96.7 μg/m³ in houses, and 62.2±83.0 μg/m³ in apartments (p<0.001) When considering the concentration of PM1, PM10 by heating type, PM1 was 55.3±50.1 μg/m³ and PM10 was 110.6±103.0 μg/m³ in households with stoves and furnaces, and PM1 was 31.6±40.1 μg/m³ and PM10 was 62.2±83.0 μg/m³ in households connected to the central heating system (p<0.001). Regarding the months of measurement, the highest concentration was observed in December 2023, at 77.1±94.1 μg/m³. The highest concentrations for both PM₁ and PM₁₀ were recorded in January 2024, at PM₁: 64.8±55.1 μg/m³, PM₁₀: 131.4±116.0 μg/m³. Conclusion 1. Indoor PM10 concentrations in residential environments in Ulaanbaatar city were within the MNS4585:2016 Air Quality Standard, however, it was exceeded the WHO air quality guidelines, indicating an excessive risk of increasing morbidity and mortality among the population. 2. Indoor PM1 and PM10 concentrations in residential environments in Ulaanbaatar varies depending on location, type of housing, type of heating, and month of measurement.

Background: The relationship between alcohol consumption and sleep disorders is a complex issue. Although alcohol has a sedative effect in small doses, this effect diminishes when alcohol consumption exceeds an average of 7 grams per hour. Aim: To assess the sleep quality of individuals dependent on alcohol. Materials and Methods: A quantitative study was conducted using a survey-based research design. A total of 120 men participated in the study, including 60 alcohol-dependent individuals and 60 in the control group without alcohol dependence. The study utilized demographic questionnaires, the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) to assess sleep quality, and the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) to determine the level of alcohol dependence. Results: The average age of alcohol-dependent participants was 45.3±42.4 years, while the control group had an average age of 42.4±5.1 years. The AUDIT score for the alcohol-dependent group was 25.6±9.8, indicating a high level of dependence, whereas the control group scored 7.2±3.2, suggesting low consumption levels. This difference was statistically significant (t=3.98, p=0.001). In the alcohol-dependent group, sleep latency was prolonged (p=0.042), sleep efficiency scores were lower (p=0.012), and sleep disturbances were more frequent (p=0.039) compared to the control group. The overall PSQI score was 9.82±2.8 for the alcohol-dependent group, whereas it was 4.1±1.2 for the control group. A correlation analysis revealed that poor subjective sleep quality (p=0.023), sleep latency of more than 30 minutes (p=0.012), sleep efficiency below 75% (p=0.021), and sleep disturbances (p=0.019) were significantly associated with higher AUDIT scores. Conclusion Alcohol dependence negatively affects sleep quality, particularly in terms of subjective sleep perception, sleep latency, and sleep efficiency, leading to sleep disorders.

Background: Since ancient times, humans have used medicinal plants for medicinal purposes, and they have been recognized as beneficial to health. The basis of the treatment of these plants is phytochemical substances and in modern times, with the development of science and technology, the substances contained in these plants are extracted and medicinal substances and drugs are produced to treat many diseases. There are more than 800 medicinal plants in Mongolia, and their chemical structure and properties are studied in detail, biological activity and main features are discovered, and new medicines are produced. From the Thalictrum squarrosum plant, 25 compounds have been identified, such as triterpenoids with 17 carbon atoms in the cycloartane type ring, saponins, oleic acid glycosides, phytosterols and their glycosides etc., and the structures of 7 new compounds have been determined and the research on phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity has been limited, which is the basis for this research. Aim: Determination of total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of Thalictrum squarrosum. Materials and Methods: Total phenolic compounds were determined spectrophotometrically using Folin-Chicolte color reagent in 1.0 raw material of the Thalictrum squarrosum. Antioxidant activity was determined by DPPH, FRAB and ABTS in sub-extracts of 4 groups. Results: The total phenolic compounds of Thalictrum squarrosum were determined to be 1.9±0.001%. In the study of biological activity of Thalictrum squarrosum plants, the antioxidant activity of 4 groups of sub-extracts was tested by DPPH method, and the IC50 of total alkaloids (pH 9-10) was 201.58±0.1 μg/ml, ethyl acetate sub-extract 94.34±0.66 μg/ml, aqueous extract 824.18±0.08 μg/ml, and butanol sub-extract 128.75±0.58 μg/ml. When tested by ABTS method, the IC50 of total alkaloids (pH 9-10) was 35.83±0.44 μg/ml, ethyl acetate sub-extract 90.45±0.62 μg/ml, aqueous extract 104.19±0.93 μg/ml, dichloromethane sub-extract 156.44±0.48 μg/ml, and butanol sub-extract 170.03±0.61 μg/ml. When tested for antioxidant activity at 800 μg/ml by the FRAB method, the ethyl acetate sub-extract was 8946.16±14.79 μg/ml, the dichloromethane sub-extract was 1670.12±39.28 μg/ml, the butanol sub-extract was 4863.97±25.98 μg/ml, and the total alkaloids (pH 9-10) were 4897.99±58.12 μg/ml. Conclusion The ethyl acetate extract of the plant Thalictrum squarrosum has been found to be highly antioxidant active and total phenolic compound was 1.9±0.001%.

Background: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), air pollution was responsible for 8.1 million deaths globally in 2021, making it the second leading cause of death, including among children under 5 years old. Air pollution is also linked to a range of diseases such as stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, and asthma. In Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia, the average daily concentration of PM2.5 particles in the air reaches 750 μg/m3 during winter, which is 50 times higher than the WHO’s recommendation, making it one of the most polluted cities in the world. Air pollution continues to pose a significant public health challenge not only in Mongolia but also in many countries globally. However, there is a lack of comprehensive research and studies that summarize and review the existing work in this field. Aim: To summarize and review thematic works on air pollution conducted by researchers from Mongolian universities. Materials and Methods: A systematic review and analysis were performed on thematic works by researchers who completed their master’s and doctoral degrees in the field of air pollution between 2011 and 2024. Results: In terms of the type of master’s and doctoral dissertations, 76.0% (n=19) were master’s theses and 24.0% (n=6) were doctoral dissertations. Among the total number of works included in the study, 36.0% (n=9) focused on the health effects of air pollution, while 64.0% (n=16) addressed other related areas. Some studies indicated that PM2.5 levels in the air between 2011 and 2024 were 1-6 times higher than the Mongolian standard, with the highest levels observed from November to February and the lowest in July. Additionally, some studies suggested a reduction in PM2.5 levels following the introduction of improved fuel in Ulaanbaatar. Air pollution was found to increase the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, as well as cancer, and to contribute to reduced fetal weight. Conclusion When examining thematic studies on air pollution conducted by state-owned universities in Mongolia, the primary focus has been on the composition, concentration, and health impacts of air pollution. Going forward, research aimed at mitigating air pollution should be driven by collaborative efforts and leadership from universities, with the results being effectively communicated to policymakers.

Background: Accreditation of healthcare institutions serves as a fundamental mechanism for ensuring patient safety and validating the quality of medical services provided to the population. At Intermed Hospital, a quality measurement system for healthcare services has been established since 2015, encompassing 126 quality indicators at both institutional and departmental levels. This system facilitates continuous quality improvement efforts. In this context, quality indicators specific to the endoscopy department play a pivotal role in objectively assessing the quality of endoscopic services. Aim: To assess the quality indicators in gastrointestinal endoscopy unit. Materials and Methods: A retrospective single-center study was conducted by collecting data from the Intermed hospital’s electronic information systems which included HIS and PACS and Quality and Safety Department’s Database and the results were processed using the SPSS software. Ethical approval was granted by the Intermed hospital’s Scientific research committee. The quality of endoscopic services in the Intermed hospital was assessed based on: a) the average values of four quality indicators measured monthly; b) sample survey data from five categories of quality indicators. Results : Between 2016 and 2024, the quality indicators of the endoscopy unit measured as the level of early warning score evaluations for patients was 95.97%±3.33, the level of cases where peripheral blood oxygen saturation decreased during sedation was 1.54%±3.78, the level of cases where patients experienced paradoxiical response during sedation was 5.82%±1.75, surveillance culturing level for validation of endoscopy reprocessing was 11.6%. The endoscopic documentation quality by peer review showed 95.7-100%, the colonoscopy quality indicators were followings as adenoma detection rate: 24.5% Cecal intubation rate: 99.1%, 95.2%, Colonoscope withdrawal average time: 13.28±10.62 minutes, Bowel preparation quality (Boston Scale): 89.3% 95.7%), patient discharge from the recovery room, Average discharge time post-procedure: With propofol alone: 30.92 minutes; With propofol and fentanyl combined: 31.52 minutes, The intermediate risk was 0.28% by the TROOPS evaluation during procedural sedation. Conclusion The quality benchmark levels for these endoscopic units, as determined by a single-center study, can be effectively implemented by benchmark endoscopy centers to enhance their quality and safety operations.

Introduction : Water is a vital resource for human existence and is essential for daily food processing, preparation, washing, hygiene, and sanitation. Furthermore, providing the population with safe drinking water is one of the pressing problems of the world and some regions.
In recent years, population density and the scale of commercial and industrial activities, as well as clean and dirty water consumption were increased in the capital city. As a result of these, ground and surface water resources are becoming scarce and polluted.
Therefore, assessment of daily drinking and residential water consumption of Ulaanbaatar should be determined to use drinking water properly in daily life and water loss. This study assessed the actual amount of households’ daily water consumption. Goal: The purpose of this study is to determine the daily consumption of drinking water for households in ger areas and apartments in Ulaanbaatar. Materials and Method: This study covers 30 households in ger areas and 15 apartment households, in Ulaanbaatar. Household members performed 6-10 types of measurements every day, within 7 days. As a result of these measurements, actual consumption of water quantity used for drinking and household purposes was calculated. Statistical analysis was done by SPSS Version 21 to calculate the true probability of difference between parameters. Result: 67.9% of the households in the ger areas were 4-5 family members. The average daily household consumption of drinking and domestic water were 68.3 ± 3.57 L (95% 61.3-75.3), the minimum consumption was 12 L, and the maximum was 227 L. Average of the household water consumption water was 97.6-108.9 liters during the weekends, and water consumption was statistically higher than weekdays (p=0.001; p=0.01).
The water consumption of residential households with 3 family members accounted for the majority (30.8%) in this study. The average daily consumption of drinking and domestic water was 297.67±19.7 liters. There was no statistically significant difference (p=0.96) in week. The average daily water consumption including drinking and residential was 270.3-335.97 L.
The total daily drinking and residential water consumption per person was 15.57 L for households in ger areas and 90 L for apartment households. Calculating the daily water consumption of households in ger areas, 60.3% of it is used for laundry, washing dishes, food preparation, washing face and hands, and clothes, 31% for drinking, and 8.7% for outdoor water use. While apartment households, approximately 94.1%, were used for household and 5.9% for drinking purposes. Research ethics approval : This study was discussed at the meeting of the Academic Council of the National Center for Public Health. In addition, this study was carried out according to the methods and methods discussed and approved at the meeting of the Medical Ethics Control Committee of the Ministry of Health (Resolution No. 08). Conclusion The total daily consumption of drinking and residential water per person were 15.57 litres for the households in the ger areas and 90 litres for the apartment households. It implies that it does not exceed the WHO recommendations

Introduction: The treatment of antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections has become a pressing problem for humanity worldwide, and antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections are likely to be the leading cause of death by 2050.Due to the mutation of infectious disease-causing bacteria and the emergence of bacterial resistance due to the improper use of antibiotics, the time and cost of infectious disease treatment increases, and in some cases, it leads to an increase in mortality, so it is the focus of the health sector in every country, regardless of the income level of the population. In addition, bacterial resistance has a negative impact on public health, food safety, the environment, and the economy.
As of 2015, Mongolia ranks among the countries with the highest consumption of antibiotics in the world, with 64.41 units of antibiotics prescribed per 1,000 people per day. Bacteria resistant to broad spectrum antibiotics have increased dramatically, and among Gram-positive bacteria, drug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has become one of the most common and dangerous cause Purpose: Determine the external structure of liposome-encapsulated antibiotics and evaluate their antibacterial activity. Materials and Methods: We conducted this study using an experimental research design. Phospholipids were isolated by intermittent evaporation, antibiotic encapsulation by freeze-thaw method, and antibiotic sensitivity was determined using standard strains by disc diffusion andmicro dilution method. Research ethics: Permission to submit the survey was granted by the Ethics Review Committee of the MNUMS. The survey was granted in accordance with the rules and regulations. Results: In liposome-encapsulated antibiotic sensitivity assays, azithromycin and clarithromycin did not form sacred circles, whereas doxycycline hyclate was sensitive by forming a 16 mm circle. Doxycycline hyclate encapsulated in liposomes formed a 16 mm circle with sensitive results, whereas blank liposomes were inactive. When the rabbits were infected with a standard strain of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, the infected area was purulent 24 hours later. A cream containing antibiotics was started at this time. A deep wound was recovered after 12 days after the pus was removed. Nevertheless, after 24 days, the wound on the rabbit’s infected part healed and the hair on the scraped part grew back. Conclusion According to the dilution method, liposome-encapsulated doxycycline hyclate inhibited bacterial growth at 2-fold lower doses than pure doxycycline hyclate. In experimental animal models, liposome-based antibiotic ointment has shown antibacterial activity.

Background: Vitamins are nutrients essential for human health. They act as coenzymes that help trigger important chemical reactions necessary for energy production. Reference values for vitamins help physicians evaluate the health status of patients and make clinical decisions. The aim of this study was to determine the mean values and reference intervals for some water-soluble vitamins of Mongolian adults. Materials and Methods: Three hundred and forty healthy adults (170 males and 170 females) of 17 to 69 years of age were selected for the study based on CLSI C28-P3 criteria Defining, establishing & Verifying reference interval in the clinical laboratory; Proposed Guidelines. The study was approved by the Resolution No.76 of 2018 of the Medical Ethics Review Committee of the Ministry of Health. Informed consents were taken from the selected individuals. Morning blood samples of the participants were collected under aseptic conditions. Levels of vitamins B₆, B₉, B₁₂ and vitamin C were measured using a high performance liquid chromatography method. The lower- and upper reference limits were defined as the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles, respectively. The data were analyzed using SPSS and Excel programs. Results: The mean blood level of vitamin C was 11.88 mg/L (95% CI 10.47-13.29) for men and 9.62 mg/L (95% CI 8.11-11.13) for women. The calculated reference interval for males was 1.40-19.40 mg/L and 1.17-18.04 mg/L for females. The mean concentration of vitamin B₁₂ in the blood of males was 938.45 ng/L (95% CI 747.22-1129.68) and that of females was 864.03 ng/L (95% CI 603.81-1124.25). The reference interval for vitamin B₁₂ was 233.03-1597.00 ng/L in men and 132.45-1623.86 ng/L in women. The mean level of vitamin B₉ was 8.47 ng/mL (95% CI 5.64-11.30) for men and 6.91 ng/mL (95% CI 4.89-8.93) for women. The calculated reference interval for this vitamin in males was 1.04-24.74 ng/mL and that in females was 1.04-21.46 ng/mL. As for vitamin B₆, the mean concentration for men was 44.42 ng/mL (95% CI 37.01-51.83) and for women was 34.67 ng/mL (95% CI 29.97-39.39) with the reference intervals of 5.90-79.02 ng/mL for men and 5.27-61.72 ng/mL for women. Conclusion The reference values for vitamins B₆, B₉, B₁₂ and vitamin C of Mongolian adults do not differ significantly from those observed in other populations. The calculated reference intervals can be used in the practice of health laboratories.