The present study aims to explore the genetic diversity of germplasm resources of Chrysanthemum×morifolium (hereinafter, C.×morifolium) at the molecular level and to establish a fingerprint database of C.×morifolium varieties. We employed 12 pairs of primers with high levels of polymorphism, clear bands, and high degrees of reproducibility to analyze the SSR molecular markers and genetic diversity of 91 C.×morifolium materials and 14 chrysanthemum- related materials. With regard to constructing the fingerprints of the tested materials, we chose 9 pairs of core primers. The findings revealed that 12 primer pairs detected 104 alleles in 105 samples, ranging from 2 to 26. The average number of observed alleles (N_a) per site was 9.25. The average number of effective alleles (N_e) per site was 2.745 6, with its range being 1.276 0 to 4.742 5. Shannon genetic diversity index (I) values ranged between 0.513 3 and 2.239 9 (M=1.209 0). Nei's gene diversity index (H) ranged between 0.216 3 and 0.789 1 (M=0.578 0). The observed heterozygosity (H_o) ranged between 0.223 3 and 0.895 2 (M=0.557 5). The expected heterozygosity (H_e) ranged between 0.217 4 and 0.793 3 (M=0.580 8). The polymorphism information content (PIC) ranged between 0.211 5 and 0.774 0 (M=0.532 9). The genetic similarity (GS) ranged between 0.228 5 and 1.000 0 (M=0.608 3). Cluster analysis revealed that when the genetic distance (GD) equals to 0.30, the tested materials can be classified into 2 groups. When the GD equals to 0.27, the first group can be divided into 6 subgroups; accordingly, 105 tested materials can be divided into 7 subgroups. The cophenetic correlation test was carried out based on the cluster analysis, and the corresponding results showed that the cluster map correlated with the genetic similarity coefficient (r=0.952 73). According to the results of Structure population analysis, we obtained the optimal population number, with the true number of populations (K) being 3 and the population being divided concerning Q≥0.5. Three subgroups, i.e., Q1, Q2 and Q3, included 34, 33 and 28 germplasms, respectively, and the remaining 10 germplasms were identified as the mixed population. During the experiment, 9 pairs of core primers were screened among the total of 12 for a complete differentiation regarding 105 tested materials, and the fingerprints of 91 C.×morifolium materials and 14 chrysanthemum-related materials were further constructed. Overall, there were significant genetic differences and rich genetic diversity among C.×morifolium materials, which would shed light on the garden application and variety selection fields of C.×morifolium. The fingerprint database of 105 C.×morifolium varieties and chrysanthemum-related species may provide technical support for future research regarding the identification and screening system of C.×morifolium varieties.
Genetic Variation ; Chrysanthemum/genetics* ; Reproducibility of Results ; Microsatellite Repeats/genetics* ; Polymorphism, Genetic ; Biomarkers ; Phylogeny

Ajania belonging to the subtribe Artemisiinae of Anthemideae(Asteraceae) is a genus of semi-shrubs closely related to Chrysanthemum. There are 24 species of Ajania in northwestern China, most of which are folk herbal medicines with strong stress tolerance. Modern medical studies have demonstrated that the chemical constituents of Ajania mainly include terpenoids, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, alkynes, and essential oils. These compounds endow the plants with antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antimalarial, antioxidant, and insecticide effects. In this study, we reviewed the research progress in the chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of Ajania, aiming to provide reference for the further research and development of Ajania.
Asteraceae ; Chrysanthemum ; Alkynes ; Antimalarials ; Antioxidants/pharmacology*

The chemical components in rats after oral administration of the water extract of Chrysanthemum morifolium cv. Fubaiju(CMF) were analyzed by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS technique. Forty-four compounds were identified from the water extract of CMF and 11 components were identified from the rat serum. A total of 264 potential anti-inflammatory targets were identified by network pharmacology based on serum components. The "component-target" network and protein-protein interaction(PPI) network were constructed, and GO function enrichment and KEGG pathway enrichment analyses were performed. The molecular docking was carried out to validate the results of network pharmacology. The results showed that CMF might act on AKT1, TNF, TP53, IL6, INS, and other core targets through apigenin, luteolin, acacetin, diosmetin, 3,4-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, and other active components, and exert anti-inflammatory effects by regulating PI3 K-AKT signaling pathway, FoxO signaling pathway, cAMP signaling pathway, Ras signaling pathway, and other pathways. The pharmacodynamic materials basis of CMF was identified by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS technology, and the core anti-inflammatory targets and the underlying mechanism of action were analyzed by network pharmacology and molecular docking, which provided a reference for comprehensively clarifying the pharmacodynamic materials basis and quality control of CMF.
Animals ; Anti-Inflammatory Agents/pharmacology* ; Chrysanthemum ; Drugs, Chinese Herbal/chemistry* ; Molecular Docking Simulation ; Network Pharmacology ; Rats ; Tandem Mass Spectrometry/methods* ; Water

This study explored the correlation between color and chemical components of Chrysanthemi Indici Flos(CIF), aiming at providing a reference for its procurement, evaluation, and breeding. Colorimeter and ultra-performance liquid chromatograph(UPLC) were used to determine the color(lightness-shade chromaticity value L~*, red-green chromaticity value a~*, yellow-blue chromati-city value b~*) and chemical components(cynaroside, linarin, luteolin, apigenin, and chlorogenic acid) of 84 CIF germplasms, respectively. Diversity analysis, correlation analysis, regression analysis, and cluster analysis were performed. The results showed that the color and chemical components of CIF were diversified. Chlorogenic acid was in significantly positive correlation with L~* and b~* and significantly negative correlation with a~*. Cynaroside and grey relational grade γ_i of chemical components were in significantly po-sitive correlation with b~* and L~*, respectively, whereas linarin, luteolin, and apigenin had no significant correlation with L~*, a~*, or b~*. The 84 CIF germplasms were clustered into 4 clades. In addition, germplasms in clade Ⅲ had higher γ_i and total color value(E~*_(ab)) than those in other clades, with the best quality and color, and a germplasm with the highest quality, bright yellow color, and highest content of linarin was screened out in this clade. Thus, CIF with bright yellow color had high content of cymaroside and chlorogenic acid and thereby high quality. In summary, the color can be used to quickly predict the quality of CIF. Our results provided data for the evaluation of CIF quality by color and a reference for its procurement and breeding.
Chrysanthemum/chemistry* ; Luteolin/analysis* ; Chlorogenic Acid/analysis* ; Apigenin/analysis* ; Plant Breeding ; Excipients ; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid/methods*

The study is aiming at investigating the application of entropy weight TOPSIS method in the comparison of the scavenging effect of DPPH, ABTS and hydroxyl radical and the inhibition effect of xanthine oxidase(XOD) and lipoxygenase(LOX) of Chrysanthemum indicum. The DPPH, ABTS, salicylic acid and spectrophotometry were used to determine the scavenging effect of DPPH, ABTS and hydroxyl radical and the inhibition effect of xanthine oxidase(XOD) and lipoxygenase(LOX) of Ch. indicum from 31 different areas in vitro. Take the half inhibition rate of as the evaluation index, two principal components were extracted by the principal component analysis, and their cumulative contribution rate reached at 92.4%. The different areas of Ch. indicum could be divided into Dabei Mountain and Qinling-Taihang Mountain by use principal component to analysis. The entropy weight TOPSIS method was used to objectively assign weights to five indexes, calculate the weight of each index and set up the best and worst scheme of the evaluation object, and the relative proximity(C_i) was used as the measure to construct the multi-index comprehensive evaluation model of Ch. indicum. And then sort with the relative proximity value. The results showed that the relative proximity was between 0.098 and 0.983 which represents there were significant differences in the scavenging effect of DPPH, ABTS and hydroxyl radical and the inhibition effect of xanthine oxidase(XOD) and lipoxygenase(LOX) between extracts of Ch. indicum from different areas. The Ch. indicum from Dabie Mountain area have a relatively high relative degree of measurement and high-quality ranking. Taken together, the quality of Ch. indicum.from the Dabie Mountain area is better. The index weight coefficient and the classification result of producing area are basically consistent with the result of principal component analysis. The results show that the TOPSIS method based on entropy weight method can be used to evaluate the comprehensive quality of Ch. indicum.
Anti-Inflammatory Agents ; Antioxidants ; Chrysanthemum ; Entropy ; Plant Extracts

In this study, 23 germplasm resources of Chrysanthemum morifolium used in medicine and tea were collected from Dabie Mountains and its surrounding producing areas, and the contents of 13 mineral elements were determined and compared. The thermal maps of correlation analysis, principal component analysis and cluster analysis were used for comprehensive evaluation. The results showed that the average content of each element in Ch. morifolium of different germplasm resources was: K>N>P>Mg>Ca>Fe>Mn>Zn>Cu>Ni>Cr>Pb>Cd, and the leaves were: K>N>Ca>Mg>P>Fe>Mn>Zn>Cr>Cu>Ni>Pb>Cd. There are rich contents of N, P, K, Ca, Mg and Fe in Ch. morifolium flowers and their leaves, among them, K element has the largest change range, while N, Ca, Fe, Mg and Zn elements have a larger change range. The absorption and accumulation of each element in the leaves of different germplasm resources varied greatly. The correlation analysis shows that there is a strong positive correlation between Ca element, Mg, Mn and Cd element.Principal component analysis in Ch. morifolium flowers characteristic elements for Mn, Cr, Cu, P, K, can be used as a Ch. morifolium resources to identify the characteristics of the elements, choose top five principal component(F1-F5) comprehensive evalua-tion of medicinal Ch. morifolium, scored in the top five varieties for Hangiu-Fuhuangju, Hangju-Xiaoyangju, Hangju-Sheyangju, Hangju-Dayanghua, Hangju-Subeiju,indicates that in terms of mineral elements, the five medicinal Ch. morifolium resources quality is better. The PCA score chart can divide 23 Ch. morifolium resources into 4 groups, and the cluster analysis heat map divides 23 Ch. morifolium resources into 5 groups. All the Ch. morifolium resources of the same type can be well clustered together, indicating that the difference in mineral element content of Ch. morifolium germplasm resources is closely related to genetic factors.
Chrysanthemum/genetics* ; Flowers/genetics* ; Minerals ; Plant Leaves ; Tea

In this study, 24 copies of samples of Chrysanthemum morifolium and soil from two main production towns in Macheng city were collected, and the contents of 13 mineral elements, 5 effective components and 14 soil nutrient factors in Ch. morifolium were determined. The enrichment characteristics of available soil nutrients by mineral elements were analyzed and the dominant factors affecting the effective components of Ch. morifolium were screened. The results showed that the content of mineral elements and soil nutrients and effective components are very different, and variation of soil fertility was much greater than that of inorganic elements in chrysanthemum plants. In general, the level of element content in Ch. morifolium from different producing areas is K>N>P>Mg>Ca>Fe>Mn>Zn>Cu>Ni>Cr>Pb>Cd. The content of K, N and Mg is higher than that of common crops, and the content of Cu, Cd and Pb in Ch. morifolium from various producing areas does not exceed the relevant standards. The N, P and K enrichment capacity in soil was stronger than that of other elements, and the Ca enrichment ability was the worst. The content of AvCu in the soil was positively correlated with the contents of N, Mg, K, Fe and Cu elements in Ch. morifolium. The contents of chlorogenic acid, luteolin, 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid reached the pharmacopoeia standard. The percentage of chlorogenic acid and 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid in Ch. morifolium that from Huangtugang town in the active components were generally higher than that from Futianhe town, and the diffe-rences of luteolin contents in the two producing areas were relatively small. The correlation and regression analysis showed that the contents of Cu, Zn and Cr in Ch. morifolium were positively correlated with the active components, while the contents of Fe, Mn and Ni were negatively correlated with the contents of AvP, AvK, TK, AvMn and AvCu in soil. In general, Zn and Ca fertilizer should be added to the ecological planting of Ch. morifolium, K fertilizer should be added, and N and P fertilizer should be applied appropriately.
Chrysanthemum ; Fertilizers ; Minerals ; Nutrients ; Soil

Chrysanthemum is widely used as a type of edible flower and also considered as the important materials of many beverages in China. Due to the occurrence of diseases and pests, and the lack of regulations for species, frequency, dose of pesticides in Chrysanthemum, pesticides have become one of the main pollutants in Chrysanthemum. The pesticide residues in Chrysanthemum were detected frequently and worth noting. This paper focused on the types of pesticides, pesticide residue detection techniques, and risk assessment methods for Chrysanthemums on the basis of relevant literatures. The pesticide residues of traditional Chinese medicine are mainly organochlorines, organophosphorus and pyrethroids, and the detection techniques include gas chromatography(GC), liquid chromatography(LC) or both combined with mass spectrometry(MS). With the increasing use of traditional Chinese medicine, Chrysanthemum is widely circulated in the market. Therefore, it is important to understand the current situation of pesticide residues in different varieties of Chrysanthemum, so as to provide theoretical reference for the control of quality and safety of Chrysanthemum and the formulation of the maximum residue limit.
China ; Chromatography, Liquid ; Chrysanthemum/genetics* ; Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry ; Pesticide Residues/analysis*

Based on the target occupancy mathematical model, the binding kinetic process of potential active ingredients of lowering uric acid in Chrysanthemum morifolium with xanthine oxidase(XOD) was evaluated. The potential active ingredients of lowering uric acid in Ch. morifolium were screened by UPLC-Q-Exactivems MS technology, reference substance identification and in vitro enzymatic kinetics experiments. The binding kinetic parameters of xanthine oxidase and potential inhibitor in Ch. morifolium were determined by surface plasma resonance(SPR). The verified mathematical model of the XOD target occupancy evaluated the kinetic binding process of inhibitors and xanthine oxidase in vivo. According to UPLC-Q-Exactive MS and reference substance identification, 39 potential uric acid-lowering active ingredients in Ch. morifolium extracts were identified and the inhibitory activities of 23 compounds were determined. Three potential xanthine oxidase inhibitors were screened, namely genistein, luteolin, and apigenin. whose IC_(50 )were 1.23, 1.47 and 1.59 μmol·L~(-1), respectively. And the binding rate constants(K_(on)) were 1.26×10~6, 5.23×10~5 and 6.36×10~5 mol·L~(-1)·s~(-1), respectively. The dissociation rate constants(K_(off)) were 10.93×10~(-2), 1.59×10~(-2), and 5.3×10~(-2 )s~(-1), respectively. After evaluation by different administration methods, the three selected compounds can perform rapid and sustained inhibition of xanthine oxidase in vivo under combined administration. This study comprehensively evaluated the target occupancy process of three effective components in different ways of administration in vivo by UPLC-MS, concentration-response method, SPR technology and xanthine oxidase target occupancy model, which would provide a new research idea and method for screening active ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine.
Chromatography, Liquid ; Chrysanthemum ; Flavonoids ; Kinetics ; Pharmaceutical Preparations ; Tandem Mass Spectrometry ; Xanthine Oxidase/metabolism*

Chrysanthemi Indici Flos(CIF), the capitulum of Chrysanthemum indicum, is widely used in proprietary Chinese medicine and daily chemical products. At present, CIF is mainly produced from wild resources and rarely cultivated. This study aims to reveal the correlations between linarin content in CIF and climatic factors in different habitats, and provide a theoretical basis for suitable zoning and rational production of medicinal materials. The content of linarin in CIF was determined by HPLC. Grey relational analysis and Pearson correlation analysis were carried out for linarin content with climatic factors. The results showed that the content of linarin in CIF was significantly different among different habitats. The grey relational degrees of climatic factors with linarin content was in an order of average annual precipitation>annual average sunshine hours>annual average temperature>longitude>annual frost-free period>latitude>altitude. Longitude, annual average temperature and average annual precipitation had significantly positive correlations with the content of linarin in CIF, whereas latitude and altitude showed negative correlations with it. The annual frost-free period and annual average sunshine hours had no significant correlation with the content of linarin in CIF. The content of linarin in CIF varied significantly in different habitats. High longitude, low latitude, low altitude, high annual average temperature and high annual average precipitation could be used as indicators for the habitats of high-quality Ch. indicum. This study provides a reference for selecting suitable producing areas of Ch. indicum and establishing artificial cultivation system.
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid ; Chrysanthemum ; Ecosystem ; Glycosides