Introduction: Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a process of epithelial transformation into mesenchymal cells. It is also a process that contributes to the progression of fibrosis and cancer metastasis. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), as a potent inducer of EMT, has therefore became a potential therapeutic target. However, clinical developments of TGF-β inhibitors have been un-successful due to safety risks. Hence, drug repurposing of existing safe-to-use drugs could over-come this issue. Methods: In this study, the TGF-β receptor type 1 (ALK5) was selected as the target protein. Molecular docking was performed using known ALK5 inhibitors as positive controls. Clinical drugs with similar binding affinity and amino acid interaction were selected for in vitro experimental validation. Results: ALK5 inhibitor demonstrated binding affinities ranging from -11.2 to -9.5 kcal/mol. Analysis of amino acid interaction revealed that Val219, Ala230, Lys232, and Leu340 amino acid residues are crucial for binding. Subsequent screening of clinically approved drugs against ALK5 showed top five potential drugs (ergotamine, telmisartan, saquinavir, indinavir, and nelfinavir). The selected drugs were tested in TGF-β1-induced normal human bronchial epithelial cell line, BEAS-2B. Western blot analysis showed that the drugs did not exhibit inhibitory effects on the downregulation of epithelial proteins (E-cadherin) and upregulation of mesenchymal proteins (vimentin and α-smooth muscle actin). Conclusion: Based on these experimental outcome, it is postulated that the results from molecular docking were false positives. The tested drugs in this study could serve as negative controls in future screening against ALK5 protein.

Introduction: The potential immunoregulatory effects of tocotrienols, the less studied form of vitamin E, had not been determined for microglia until our last publication showcased primary evidence of palm tocotrienols limiting microglia activation, explicitly by inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) production. Here we further explored the nitrite scavenging activity of the two most potent NO-reducing tocotrienol isoforms - δ- tocotrienol and Tocomin50% (contains a spectrum of tocotrienols and α-tocopherol) based on their inhibitory effects on NO production and also their effects on CD40 (a microglial co-stimulator molecule) expression of BV2 microglia. Methods: BV2 cells were treated with two different doses of tocotrienols (δ-tocotrienol: 3.96 μg/mL and 19.80 μg/mL; Tocomin50%: 47.50 μg/mL and 237.50 μg/mL) followed by stimulation with 1 μg/mL of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). A chemical scavenging assay was conducted to study the nitrite scavenging activity of δ- tocotrienol. Together with Tocomin50%, we also determined their effects on CD40 expression of BV2 microglia via flow cytometry. Results: We demonstrate that the inhibitory effect of tocotrienols on NO production by microglia is not attributed to their nitrite scavenging activity. Additionally, tocotrienols also reduced the expression of the microglial co-stimulator molecule, CD40. Conclusions: Our data aids the further characterisation of the actions of tocotrienols on microglia, offering insight into the potential modulatory properties of palm tocotrienols on microglial inflammatory responses within the central nervous system (CNS).