Three-dimensional (3D) printing is one of the most effective scaffold manufacturing techniques which might revolutionize the realm of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The scaffolds, one of the major elements of tissue engineering, along with growth factors and cells, are still one of the most promising approaches for developing organ regeneration. However, the applications of 3D-printed hard scaffolds might have limitations due to their poor surface properties, which play a crucial role in cell recruitment and infiltration, tissue-scaffold integration, and anti-inflammatory properties. Various prerequisites have been suggested for clinical applications of 3D-printed substitute for human body. Consequently, continuous amendment has been made to modify the surface properties, porosities and mechanical properties of these scaffolds. The techniques that modify the surfaces through chemical and material modifications can also be applied to facilitate the efficacy of these scaffolds. In this review, we summarized the characteristics of 3D printing technology and discuss the development direction of the latest 3D printing technology toward meeting the unmet needs in the clinic.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is one of the most effective scaffold manufacturing techniques which might revolutionize the realm of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The scaffolds, one of the major elements of tissue engineering, along with growth factors and cells, are still one of the most promising approaches for developing organ regeneration. However, the applications of 3D-printed hard scaffolds might have limitations due to their poor surface properties, which play a crucial role in cell recruitment and infiltration, tissue-scaffold integration, and anti-inflammatory properties. Various prerequisites have been suggested for clinical applications of 3D-printed substitute for human body. Consequently, continuous amendment has been made to modify the surface properties, porosities and mechanical properties of these scaffolds. The techniques that modify the surfaces through chemical and material modifications can also be applied to facilitate the efficacy of these scaffolds. In this review, we summarized the characteristics of 3D printing technology and discuss the development direction of the latest 3D printing technology toward meeting the unmet needs in the clinic.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is one of the most effective scaffold manufacturing techniques which might revolutionize the realm of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The scaffolds, one of the major elements of tissue engineering, along with growth factors and cells, are still one of the most promising approaches for developing organ regeneration. However, the applications of 3D-printed hard scaffolds might have limitations due to their poor surface properties, which play a crucial role in cell recruitment and infiltration, tissue-scaffold integration, and anti-inflammatory properties. Various prerequisites have been suggested for clinical applications of 3D-printed substitute for human body. Consequently, continuous amendment has been made to modify the surface properties, porosities and mechanical properties of these scaffolds. The techniques that modify the surfaces through chemical and material modifications can also be applied to facilitate the efficacy of these scaffolds. In this review, we summarized the characteristics of 3D printing technology and discuss the development direction of the latest 3D printing technology toward meeting the unmet needs in the clinic.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is one of the most effective scaffold manufacturing techniques which might revolutionize the realm of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The scaffolds, one of the major elements of tissue engineering, along with growth factors and cells, are still one of the most promising approaches for developing organ regeneration. However, the applications of 3D-printed hard scaffolds might have limitations due to their poor surface properties, which play a crucial role in cell recruitment and infiltration, tissue-scaffold integration, and anti-inflammatory properties. Various prerequisites have been suggested for clinical applications of 3D-printed substitute for human body. Consequently, continuous amendment has been made to modify the surface properties, porosities and mechanical properties of these scaffolds. The techniques that modify the surfaces through chemical and material modifications can also be applied to facilitate the efficacy of these scaffolds. In this review, we summarized the characteristics of 3D printing technology and discuss the development direction of the latest 3D printing technology toward meeting the unmet needs in the clinic.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is one of the most effective scaffold manufacturing techniques which might revolutionize the realm of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. The scaffolds, one of the major elements of tissue engineering, along with growth factors and cells, are still one of the most promising approaches for developing organ regeneration. However, the applications of 3D-printed hard scaffolds might have limitations due to their poor surface properties, which play a crucial role in cell recruitment and infiltration, tissue-scaffold integration, and anti-inflammatory properties. Various prerequisites have been suggested for clinical applications of 3D-printed substitute for human body. Consequently, continuous amendment has been made to modify the surface properties, porosities and mechanical properties of these scaffolds. The techniques that modify the surfaces through chemical and material modifications can also be applied to facilitate the efficacy of these scaffolds. In this review, we summarized the characteristics of 3D printing technology and discuss the development direction of the latest 3D printing technology toward meeting the unmet needs in the clinic.

Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) has been used for over a century and has been demonstrated to be effective in treating patients with various allergic diseases. AIT allergens can be administered through various routes, including subcutaneous, sublingual, intralymphatic, oral, or epicutaneous routes. Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) has recently gained clinical interest, and it is considered an alternative treatment for allergic rhinitis (AR) and asthma. This review provides an overview of the current evidence-based studies that address the use of SLIT for treating AR, including (1) mechanisms of action, (2) appropriate patient selection for SLIT, (3) the current available SLIT products in Korea, and (4) updated information on its efficacy and safety. Finally, this guideline aims to provide the clinician with practical considerations for SLIT.

Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) is a causative treatment of allergic diseases in which allergen extracts are regularly administered in a gradually escalated doses, leading to immune tolerance and consequent alleviation of allergic diseases. The need for uniform practice guidelines in AIT is continuously growing as the number of potential candidates for AIT increases and new therapeutic approaches are tried. This updated version of the Korean Academy of Asthma Allergy and Clinical Immunology recommendations for AIT, published in 2010, proposes an expert opinion by specialists in allergy, pediatrics, and otorhinolaryngology. This guideline deals with the basic knowledge of AIT, including mechanisms, clinical efficacy, allergen standardization, important allergens in Korea, and special consideration in pediatrics. The article also covers the methodological aspects of AIT, including patient selection, allergen selection, schedule and doses, follow-up care, efficacy measurements, and management of adverse reactions. Although this guideline suggests the optimal dosing schedule, an individualized approach and modifications are recommended considering the situation for each patient and clinic.

Fexuprazan (DWP14012), a potassium-competitive acid blocker, is a medical formulation prescribed to inhibit the secretion of gastric acid. The present study encompasses a comparative evaluation of pharmacokinetic (PK) analysis between the previous (reference) and size-reduced (test) formulation of fexuprazan 20 mg in healthy subjects. The study employed a randomized, open-label, single-dose, 2-sequence, 2-period, crossover design with a 7-day wash-out between periods. A total of 24 subjects were enrolled in this randomized study. During each period, the 21 subjects received either the test or reference formulation. Blood samples were collected at multiple time point ranging from 0 (pre-dose) to 48 hours post-dosing for PK analysis. The calculated PK parameters were considered bioequivalent when the 90% confidence intervals (CIs) of the geometric mean ratios (GMRs) were within the bioequivalence limit of 0.8–1.25. Safety and tolerability were included in the evaluation. A total of 20 subjects completed the study. Point estimates (90% CIs) of the GMRs were 1.1014 (0.9892–1.2265) for the maximum plasma concentration and 1.0530 (0.9611–1.1536) for the area under the plasma concentration-time curve from zero to the time of the last quantifiable concentration, between the test and reference formulations.The reference and size-reduced test formulations of fexuprazan were well tolerated with no reports of serious adverse events. In conclusion, size-reduced and previous formulations of fexuprazan 20 mg were bioequivalent with regard to PKs, safety and tolerability.

Allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) is presumed to modulate the natural course of allergic disease by inducing immune tolerance. However, conventional AITs, such as subcutaneous immunotherapy and sublingual immunotherapy, require long treatment durations and often provoke local or systemic hypersensitivity reactions. Therefore, only <5% of allergy patients receive AIT as second-line therapy. Novel administration routes, such as intralymphatic, intradermal and epicutaneous immunotherapies, and synthetic recombinant allergen preparations have been evaluated to overcome these limitations. We will review the updated views of diverse AIT methods, and discuss the limitations and opportunities of the AITs for the treatment of allergic diseases in humans.