Background: Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are the major pathogens associated with respiratory infections which can result in extensive pathological damage in lungs and serious complications. Isorhamnetin, an abundant natural flavonoid in fruits and medicinal plants, has recently been shown to have strong antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral effects. Objective: This study investigated the pharmacological effects of isorhamnetin on viral pneumonia and explored the underlying mechanisms by in vivo and in vitro experiments. Materials and methods: In the present study, the protective effect of isorhamnetin against IAV was evaluated by the cytopathogenic effect assay, cell counting kit-8 assay, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and immunofluorescence assay in vitro. Then the pathological damage associated with pneumonia was examined by calculating the pulmonary index and performing micro-CT and hematoxylin-eosin staining in vivo. Thereafter, the related protein or gene levels of factors in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) signaling pathways were determined by Western blot and immunofluorescence staining. Results: Isorhamnetin exerted significant anti-influenza effects and inhibited the expression of viral RNA in A549 cells, counteracting oxidative stress and apoptosis by suppressing the production of reactive oxygen species and caspase-3. The in vivo experiment results showed that isorhamnetin (20 and 40 mg/kg) caused a significant decrease in the pulmonary index, ameliorated pathological damage in the lung tissue, decreased viral load and NA activity, and reduced cytokines and nuclear factors. Furthermore, isorhamnetin could counteract the B cell lymphoma-2/B cell lymphoma-2–associated X protein (Bax) imbalance induced by PR8, suppress activation of the MAPK pathway, and upregulate the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1. Conclusions: Isorhamnetin can protect against viral pneumonia by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and suppressing the MAPK path-way. This study deciphers the pharmacological mechanism of isorhamnetin in alleviating pathological damage in viral pneumonia and provides rationale for the application of isorhamnetin in influenza treatment.

Background: Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are the major pathogens associated with respiratory infections which can result in extensive pathological damage in lungs and serious complications. Isorhamnetin, an abundant natural flavonoid in fruits and medicinal plants, has recently been shown to have strong antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral effects. Objective: This study investigated the pharmacological effects of isorhamnetin on viral pneumonia and explored the underlying mechanisms by in vivo and in vitro experiments. Materials and methods: In the present study, the protective effect of isorhamnetin against IAV was evaluated by the cytopathogenic effect assay, cell counting kit-8 assay, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and immunofluorescence assay in vitro. Then the pathological damage associated with pneumonia was examined by calculating the pulmonary index and performing micro-CT and hematoxylin-eosin staining in vivo. Thereafter, the related protein or gene levels of factors in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) signaling pathways were determined by Western blot and immunofluorescence staining. Results: Isorhamnetin exerted significant anti-influenza effects and inhibited the expression of viral RNA in A549 cells, counteracting oxidative stress and apoptosis by suppressing the production of reactive oxygen species and caspase-3. The in vivo experiment results showed that isorhamnetin (20 and 40 mg/kg) caused a significant decrease in the pulmonary index, ameliorated pathological damage in the lung tissue, decreased viral load and NA activity, and reduced cytokines and nuclear factors. Furthermore, isorhamnetin could counteract the B cell lymphoma-2/B cell lymphoma-2–associated X protein (Bax) imbalance induced by PR8, suppress activation of the MAPK pathway, and upregulate the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1. Conclusions: Isorhamnetin can protect against viral pneumonia by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and suppressing the MAPK path-way. This study deciphers the pharmacological mechanism of isorhamnetin in alleviating pathological damage in viral pneumonia and provides rationale for the application of isorhamnetin in influenza treatment.

Background: Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are the major pathogens associated with respiratory infections which can result in extensive pathological damage in lungs and serious complications. Isorhamnetin, an abundant natural flavonoid in fruits and medicinal plants, has recently been shown to have strong antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral effects. Objective: This study investigated the pharmacological effects of isorhamnetin on viral pneumonia and explored the underlying mechanisms by in vivo and in vitro experiments. Materials and methods: In the present study, the protective effect of isorhamnetin against IAV was evaluated by the cytopathogenic effect assay, cell counting kit-8 assay, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and immunofluorescence assay in vitro. Then the pathological damage associated with pneumonia was examined by calculating the pulmonary index and performing micro-CT and hematoxylin-eosin staining in vivo. Thereafter, the related protein or gene levels of factors in the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) signaling pathways were determined by Western blot and immunofluorescence staining. Results: Isorhamnetin exerted significant anti-influenza effects and inhibited the expression of viral RNA in A549 cells, counteracting oxidative stress and apoptosis by suppressing the production of reactive oxygen species and caspase-3. The in vivo experiment results showed that isorhamnetin (20 and 40 mg/kg) caused a significant decrease in the pulmonary index, ameliorated pathological damage in the lung tissue, decreased viral load and NA activity, and reduced cytokines and nuclear factors. Furthermore, isorhamnetin could counteract the B cell lymphoma-2/B cell lymphoma-2–associated X protein (Bax) imbalance induced by PR8, suppress activation of the MAPK pathway, and upregulate the expression of Nrf2 and HO-1. Conclusions: Isorhamnetin can protect against viral pneumonia by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway and suppressing the MAPK path-way. This study deciphers the pharmacological mechanism of isorhamnetin in alleviating pathological damage in viral pneumonia and provides rationale for the application of isorhamnetin in influenza treatment.

Objective: This study aims to investigate the therapeutic effects and underlying mechanisms of Xuanfei Baidu Decoction (XFBD) in a mouse model of dampness-heat toxin pneumonia. By exploring how XFBD exerts its effects, we seek to deepen our understanding of its role in treating pulmonary diseases and to address the current knowledge gap regarding its mechanisms of action, thereby supporting its clinical application. Methods: Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) were employed to analyze the chemical constituents of XFBD. The protective effects of XFBD were evaluated using a dampness-heat toxin-induced mouse model, established through dampness-heat exposure and HCoV-229E infection. XFBD was administered orally, followed by assessments including lung index measurement, micro-CT imaging, viral load quantification, cytokine analysis, and histological evaluation via hematoxylin-eosin staining. Proteomics and single-cell transcriptomic analyses were conducted to explore the potential mechanisms underlying XFBD’s pharmacological effects. A cellular model of HCoV-229E infection was developed to investigate changes in the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway. Molecular docking and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiments confirmed the strong binding affinity between key XFBD components and PKA. Finally, PKA activators and inhibitors were applied in vitro to validate these mechanistic findings. Results: In vivo studies demonstrated that XFBD significantly reduced the lung index, improved the structural integrity of lung and tongue tissues, and decreased levels of proinflammatory mediators, including IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α. Proteomic and single-cell transcriptomic analyses showed that the differentially expressed proteins after XFBD treatment were primarily associated with inflammatory responses and immune regulation. The cAMP/PKA signaling pathway was identified as a key mechanism underlying these therapeutic effects. Notably, Western blot, ELISA, molecular docking, and SPR analyses confirmed that XFBD elevated cAMP levels and p-PKA expression, thereby activating the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway in vitro. Conclusion: This study demonstrated that XFBD significantly alleviates symptoms in mice with dampness-heat toxin pneumonia. Its therapeutic effects are mediated, at least in part, through activation of the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway. These findings provide compelling evidence that XFBD is an effective herbal remedy against HCoV-229E infection.

ObjectiveThis paper aims to verify the therapeutic effect of Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder prepared by the new process on the rat's trigeminal neuralgia model caused by infraorbital injection of Talci Pulvis， evaluate its potential clinical application value， and compare the therapeutic effect with that of Cranial Painkiller granules， so as to provide data support for the application of the Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder and precise treatment. MethodsThe rat's trigeminal neuralgia model was constructed by infraorbital injection of Talci Pulvis， and the rats were randomly divided into the normal group， model group， carbamazepine group （60 mg·kg^-1）， Cranial Painkiller granules group （2.70 g·kg^-1）， and low， medium， and high dosage groups of Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder （1.35， 2.70， 5.40 g·kg^-1） according to the basal mechanical pain thresholds， and there were 10 rats in each group. The drug was administered by gavage to each group 2 h after modeling， and distilled water was given by gavage to the normal and model groups under the same conditions once a day for 10 d. Von Frey brushes were used to measure mechanical pain thresholds in rats. Hematoxylin-eosin （HE） staining was used to detect pathological changes in the trigeminal ganglion， and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay （ELISA） was used to detect the inflammatory factors interleukin-1 （IL-1）， interleukin-6 （IL-6）， interleukin-8 （IL-8）， and tumor necrosis factor-α （TNF-α） levels in rat serum， as well as neuropeptide substance P （SP） and β-endorphin （β-EP） levels in rat brain tissue. Western blot technique was used to detect the levels of NLRP3， ASC， Caspase-1， and OTULIN proteins in rat brain tissue. ResultsCompared with the normal group， the pain threshold of rats in the model group showed a continuous significant decrease （P<0.01）. The pathological damage of brain tissue was significant （P<0.01）， and the inflammatory levels of IL-1， IL-6， IL-8， and TNF-α in serum were significantly elevated （P<0.01）. The level of the SP in the brain tissue was significantly elevated （P<0.01）， and the level of β-EP was significantly reduced （P<0.01）， while the level of OTULIN was significantly reduced， and NLRP3， ASC， and Caspase-1 protein levels were significantly elevated （P<0.01）. After administration of the drug， compared with the model group， the pain threshold of each dose group of the Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder and the Cranial Painkiller granules group significantly increased （P<0.01）. The inflammatory levels of IL-1， IL-6， IL-8， and TNF-α and SP levels significantly decreased （P<0.01）， and the β-EP levels were significantly elevated （P<0.01）， while the levels of OTULIN protein were significantly elevated （P<0.05， P<0.01）， and the levels of NLRP3， ASC proteins were decreased （P<0.01）in high dose Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder. Meanwhile， compared with those in the model group， the trigeminal ganglion lesions of rats in the Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder and Cranial Painkiller granules groups showed different degrees of improvement （P<0.05， P<0.01）. ConclusionThe Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder has significant therapeutic effects on the rat model of trigeminal neuralgia induced by infraorbital injection of Talci Pulvis， and its mechanism is related to the improvement of OTULIN-regulated neuroinflammation.

ObjectiveTo investigate the protective effect and mechanism of verbenalin on mouse mononuclear macrophage leukemia cells （RAW264.7） damaged by human coronavirus （HCoV）-229E infection， thereby providing experimental evidence for its development and application. MethodsRAW264.7 macrophages were infected with different concentrations of HCoV-229E to establish a coronavirus-induced macrophage injury model using the cell counting kit-8 （CCK-8） assay for assessing cell proliferation and viability. Cells were randomly divided into four groups： normal control， verbenalin group （125 μmol·L^-1）， model group （HCoV-229E）， and HCoV-229E + verbenalin group （HCoV-229E + 125 μmol·L^-1 verbenalin）. Cell viability was measured using the CCK-8 assay， and the maximum non-toxic concentration （CC₀）， half-maximal cytotoxic concentration （CC₅₀）， half-maximal effective concentration （EC₅₀）， and selectivity index （SI） of verbenalin were calculated. Calcein/PI double staining was used to assess cell viability and cytotoxicity， and JC-1 staining was applied to evaluate changes in mitochondrial membrane potential （MMP）. mito-Keima adenovirus labeling was used to assess mitophagy levels in each group. ResultsA macrophage infection model was successfully established by infecting RAW264.7 cells with the original concentration of HCoV-229E for 36 h. The CC₀ of verbenalin was 125 μmol·L^-1. The CC₅₀ was 448.25 μmol·L^-1. The EC₅₀ against HCoV-229E-infected cells was 46.28 μmol·L^-1， and the SI was 9.68. Compared with the normal group， the model group showed significantly reduced cell survival rate （P<0.01）， increased cell death rate （P<0.01）， decreased MMP （P<0.01）， and suppressed mitophagy （P<0.01）. In contrast， verbenalin treatment significantly improved cell survival rate （P<0.01）， reduced cell death rate （P<0.01）， alleviated MMP loss （P<0.01）， and enhanced mitophagy levels （P<0.01） compared with the model group. ConclusionVerbenalin can enhance the survival rate of macrophages following HCoV-229E infection. The underlying mechanism may be associated with the activation of mitophagy， maintenance of MMP stability， and alleviation of mitochondrial damage.

ObjectiveThis paper aims to investigate the therapeutic effects of Jidesheng Sheyao tablets on varicella-zoster virus （VZV） and its associated postherpetic neuralgia （PHN） to provide experimental evidence for the clinical application and secondary development of Jidesheng Sheyao tablets. MethodsFifty-six guinea pigs were randomly divided into seven groups according to their body weight， namely the normal group， the model group， the positive control group， the high-dose group， medium-dose group， and low-dose group of Jidesheng Sheyao tablets （1.92， 0.96， 0.48 g·d^-1）， and the group treated with oral administration combined with topical application of Jidesheng Sheyao tablets （0.96 g·d^-1 + 1.2 g·kg^-1·d^-1）. The skin on the back of the guinea pigs in each group was depilated and then abraded with sandpaper. Except for the normal group， 200 μL of VZV solution was dropped on the damaged parts of the back of the guinea pigs in the other groups， and the infection lasted for 2 consecutive days. The drug administration started 2 hours after the infection on the first day and lasted for 7 days. The pathological changes of the back of the guinea pigs in each group were observed every day starting from the second day after the infection. On the 7^th day， the guinea pigs were sacrificed by CO₂ anesthesia. The locally infected skin was taken， and the viral DNA nucleic acid load was detected by real-time polymerase chain reaction （Real-time PCR）. The pathological histology examination was carried out after hematoxylin-eosin （HE） staining. Seventy rats were randomly divided into seven groups according to their body weight， namely the normal group， the model group， the positive control group， the high-dose group， medium-dose group， and low-dose group of Jidesheng Sheyao tablets （1.08， 0.54， 0.27 g·d^-1）， and the group treated with oral administration combined with topical application of Jidesheng Sheyao tablets （0.54 g·d^-1 + 1.2 g·kg^-1·d^-1）. The rats in each group （except the normal group） were subcutaneously inoculated with 50 μL of VZV suspension between the web of the first and second fingers of the left forelimb. The skin on the back of the rats was depilated， and the drug administration started 2 hours after the infection and lasted for 10 days. The mechanical withdrawal threshold of the paws of the rats was detected by a Von Frey filament algometer before inoculation and on the 1^st， 3^rd， 6^th， 8^th， and 10^th days after inoculation， and the thermal withdrawal reflex latency of the paws of the rats was detected by a hot and cold plate algometer. On the 10^th day after the virus inoculation， the rats were anesthetized after the behavioral examination， and the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord and spinal cord segments were taken. The contents of substance P （SP）， neurokinin （NK）， tumor necrosis factor-α （TNF-α）， and interleukin-1β （IL-1β） in the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord and spinal cord were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay （ELISA）. ResultsCompared with those in the normal group， the guinea pigs in the model group had obvious skin herpes lesions （P<0.01）. The viral nucleic acid load was high （P<0.01）， and there were disorganized subcutaneous cellular structures and obvious infiltration of inflammatory cells and cell necrosis （P<0.01）. The mechanical withdrawal threshold of the paws and the thermal withdrawal reflex latency of the paws of the rats were significantly decreased （P<0.05）， and the contents of NK， SP， TNF-α， and IL-1β in the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord and spinal cord of the rats were significantly increased （P<0.01）. Compared with the model group， the high-dose and medium-dose groups of topical administration of Jidesheng Sheyao tablets and the group of oral administration combined with topical application could significantly improve the lesions such as skin redness and herpes of the guinea pigs caused by VZV infection （P<0.01）， reduce the VZV viral nucleic acid load in the skin tissues of the guinea pigs （P<0.01）， alleviate the degree of inflammatory cell infiltration and skin cell necrosis in the skin tissue （P<0.05）， significantly increase the mechanical withdrawal threshold of the paws and the thermal withdrawal reflex latency of the paws of the rats （P<0.05）， and decrease the contents of NK， SP， TNF-α， and IL-1β in the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord and spinal cord of the rats （P<0.01）. ConclusionJidesheng Sheyao tablets demonstrated significant therapeutic effects on VZV-induced skin infections and postherpetic neuralgia （PHN）， providing a promising candidate for the prevention and treatment of VZV infections.

ObjectiveTo construct an animal model of respiratory syncytial virus（RSV）-infected pneumonia suitable for preclinical studies. MethodsThe virulence of RSV to the four cell lines was observed by cytopathic effect （CPE）， and 50% tissue culture infective dose（TCID₅₀） was calculated. Twenty BALB/c mice were randomly divided into a normal group and a model group. Six BALB/c-hIGF1R mice served as the humanized IGF1R model group. Except for the normal group， the other groups received intranasal RSV infection on days 1 and 3 to establish a viral pneumonia model. The efficacy of establishing an RSV-induced pneumonia animal model based on humanized insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor （IGF1R） mice was evaluated by measuring organ indices， peripheral blood lymphocyte percentages， pulmonary pathology and imaging， and pulmonary viral load. Additionally， ten BALB/c mice served as normal group， and thirty-two BALB/c-hIGF1R mice were randomly assigned to humanized IGF1R model group， ribavirin group （82.5 mg·kg^-¹·d^-¹）， and high and low dose groups of Lianhua Qingwen （3.3 mg·kg^-¹·d^-¹ ， 1.65 mg·kg^-¹·d^-¹）， with 8 mice per group. The viral load in lung tissue was measured after ribavirin and Lianhua Qingwen intervention， and the model was applied to the evaluation of anti-RSV drugs. ResultsIn the lungs of the humanized IGF1R model group， large solid and diffuse ground-glass shadows were seen， and the lung volume was significantly increased （P<0.01）. The lung index was significantly increased （P<0.01）， and both the spleen index and thymus index were significantly decreased （P<0.01）. The percentages of CD3⁺ and CD4⁺T cells were significantly decreased （P<0.05）， and there was a large amount of inflammation and stasis in the perivascular area of the lung tissue， which was predominantly characterized by lymphocytes. The endothelium of blood vessels was partially detached， with a small number of eosinophils. After infecting BALB/c-hIGF1R mice with RSV， the expression of viral nucleic acids in the lung tissue of the mice was significantly increased， with significant differences compared with the normal group （P<0.01）. The expression of viral nucleic acids in the ribavirin group and the high and low dose groups of Lianhua Qingwen was significantly reduced， with significant differences compared with the normal group （P<0.01）. ConclusionHumanized IGF1R mice are more susceptible to respiratory SVC， and the animal model of RSV-infected pneumonia based on humanized IGF1R mice was successfully constructed， which is suitable for the evaluation of anti-RSV drugs.

Currently， viral pneumonia （VP） presents a major challenge to global public health. Traditional Chinese medicine （TCM） prevention and treatment of VP is guided by the core concept of strengthening vital energy and eliminating pathogenic factors rather than targeting specific pathogens， alongside a holistic approach of syndrome differentiation and treatment. By summarizing the clinical syndromes of patients， the core pathogenesis was clarified to achieve individualized therapy. Animal models for disease-syndrome combination integrate the etiology and pathogenesis of VP and simulate the individualized manifestations of patients at different disease stages， providing an experimental platform for elucidating the theoretical basis of TCM in treating VP and promoting the development of effective TCM formulations. However， there are limitations in the application and promotion of disease-syndrome combination animal models due to the lack of standardization and normalization of model construction systems， which arise from diverse species selection， compound modeling methods， and multidimensional evaluation indicators. This paper systematically reviewed the recent research on animal models for disease-syndrome combination in VP from the perspective of species selection， modeling methods， evaluation indicators， and application status. Furthermore， it summarized the advantages and limitations of existing models， identifies future directions for improvement， and proposes optimization strategies. This review provides a reference for establishing standardized and normalized animal models for disease-syndrome combinations in VP， supporting the theoretical modernization of TCM in preventing and controlling emerging respiratory infectious diseases， and contributing to the development of new TCM drugs.

ObjectiveThis paper aims to verify the therapeutic effect of Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder prepared by the new process on the rat's trigeminal neuralgia model caused by infraorbital injection of Talci Pulvis， evaluate its potential clinical application value， and compare the therapeutic effect with that of Cranial Painkiller granules， so as to provide data support for the application of the Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder and precise treatment. MethodsThe rat's trigeminal neuralgia model was constructed by infraorbital injection of Talci Pulvis， and the rats were randomly divided into the normal group， model group， carbamazepine group （60 mg·kg^-1）， Cranial Painkiller granules group （2.70 g·kg^-1）， and low， medium， and high dosage groups of Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder （1.35， 2.70， 5.40 g·kg^-1） according to the basal mechanical pain thresholds， and there were 10 rats in each group. The drug was administered by gavage to each group 2 h after modeling， and distilled water was given by gavage to the normal and model groups under the same conditions once a day for 10 d. Von Frey brushes were used to measure mechanical pain thresholds in rats. Hematoxylin-eosin （HE） staining was used to detect pathological changes in the trigeminal ganglion， and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay （ELISA） was used to detect the inflammatory factors interleukin-1 （IL-1）， interleukin-6 （IL-6）， interleukin-8 （IL-8）， and tumor necrosis factor-α （TNF-α） levels in rat serum， as well as neuropeptide substance P （SP） and β-endorphin （β-EP） levels in rat brain tissue. Western blot technique was used to detect the levels of NLRP3， ASC， Caspase-1， and OTULIN proteins in rat brain tissue. ResultsCompared with the normal group， the pain threshold of rats in the model group showed a continuous significant decrease （P<0.01）. The pathological damage of brain tissue was significant （P<0.01）， and the inflammatory levels of IL-1， IL-6， IL-8， and TNF-α in serum were significantly elevated （P<0.01）. The level of the SP in the brain tissue was significantly elevated （P<0.01）， and the level of β-EP was significantly reduced （P<0.01）， while the level of OTULIN was significantly reduced， and NLRP3， ASC， and Caspase-1 protein levels were significantly elevated （P<0.01）. After administration of the drug， compared with the model group， the pain threshold of each dose group of the Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder and the Cranial Painkiller granules group significantly increased （P<0.01）. The inflammatory levels of IL-1， IL-6， IL-8， and TNF-α and SP levels significantly decreased （P<0.01）， and the β-EP levels were significantly elevated （P<0.01）， while the levels of OTULIN protein were significantly elevated （P<0.05， P<0.01）， and the levels of NLRP3， ASC proteins were decreased （P<0.01）in high dose Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder. Meanwhile， compared with those in the model group， the trigeminal ganglion lesions of rats in the Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder and Cranial Painkiller granules groups showed different degrees of improvement （P<0.05， P<0.01）. ConclusionThe Cranial Painkiller pills' extract powder has significant therapeutic effects on the rat model of trigeminal neuralgia induced by infraorbital injection of Talci Pulvis， and its mechanism is related to the improvement of OTULIN-regulated neuroinflammation.