In recent years, the incidence rate of pertussis in China has been steadily increasing, presenting an increasingly severe challenge for disease prevention and control. To strengthen the immune barrier in the population and effectively curb the spread of pertussis, National Disease Control and Prevention Administration of China and other relevant authorities optimized the immunization procedure for diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine, with the new procedure implemented in 2025. This adjustment includes three key measures: advancing the initial dose of the vaccine from 3 months to 2 months of age, extending the interval between primary immunization doses from 1 month to 2 months, and adding an extra dose of acellular diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine at 6 years of age. This article discusses potential changes in the epidemiology and clinical manifestations of pertussis following such adjustments for immunization procedure, and awareness of these changes will facilitate the accurate identification of pertussis cases, which is crucial for evaluating the impact of these adjustments and further optimizing immunization strategies.
Humans ; Whooping Cough/epidemiology* ; Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis Vaccine/immunology* ; Infant ; Immunization Schedule ; Child

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the epidemiological characteristics of measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) between 2014 and 2021 and identify potential strategies and measures for the prevention and control of MMR in China. METHODS: Data on MMR was obtained from China's National Notifiable Disease Reporting System for the period from 2014 to 2021. Spatiotemporal distributions were analyzed using SaTScan; temporal trends were analyzed using JoinPoint; and clusters were visualized using ArcGIS. RESULTS: A total of 1,808,067 cases of MMR were reported from 2014 to 2021 in China's mainland, most of which were children and students under the age of 20. The incidence of measles declined during 2014-2021, whereas that of mumps and rubella peaked in 2019. MMR-reported cases generally peaked from March to July; however, high numbers of mumps cases were reported from September to November in 2020-2021. Measles and rubella clusters predominantly occurred in Western China, whereas clusters of mumps were generally found in the southern region. CONCLUSION The relatively heterogeneous epidemiological characteristics of MMR have highlighted the weaknesses and gaps in surveillance and timely control of MMR transmission in China's mainland. Real-time and intelligent monitoring data should be collected for evidence-based early interventions.
China/epidemiology* ; Humans ; Measles/epidemiology* ; Child ; Mumps/epidemiology* ; Adolescent ; Child, Preschool ; Rubella/epidemiology* ; Young Adult ; Infant ; Male ; Female ; Adult ; Incidence ; Middle Aged ; Measles-Mumps-Rubella Vaccine ; Infant, Newborn

As the implementation of national expanded program on immunization and the increase of non-immunization vaccine, the types and doses of vaccines for children are increasing accordingly. And the problems of 0-12 months children are more outstanding, which affects timely and entirely complete the vaccination. The use of combination vaccines, or simultaneous immunization which is also the future trend can simplify immunization procedures, increase vaccination rate and provide more protection for children. This paper was completed based on the review of the latest national and international literatures, immunization procedures and vaccine instructions, form the consensus of problems, challenges and solution of immunization strategies for 0-12 months children, with special aims to provide reference for reasonable vaccination arrangements for primary vaccination doctors in China.
Child ; Consensus ; Humans ; Immunization Programs ; Immunization Schedule ; Infant ; Vaccination ; Vaccines ; Vaccines, Combined

Influenza is an acute respiratory infectious disease caused by the influenza virus, which seriously affects human health. The influenza virus has frequent antigenic drifts that can facilitate escape from pre-existing population immunity and lead to the rapid spread and annual seasonal epidemics. Influenza outbreaks occur in crowded settings, such as schools, kindergartens, and nursing homes. Seasonal influenza epidemics can cause 3-5 million severe cases and 290 000-650 000 respiratory disease-related deaths worldwide every year. Pregnant women, infants, adults 60 years and older, and individuals with comorbidities or underlying medical conditions are at the highest risk of severe illness and death from influenza. Given the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, some provinces in southern China had a summer peak of influenza. SARS-CoV-2 may co-circulate with influenza and other respiratory viruses in the upcoming winter-spring influenza season. Annual influenza vaccination is an effective way to prevent influenza, reduce influenza-related severe illness and death, and reduce the harm caused by influenza-related diseases and the use of medical resources. The currently approved influenza vaccines in China include trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV3), quadrivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV4), and trivalent live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV3). IIV3 is produced as a split virus vaccine and subunit vaccine; IIV4 is produced as a split virus vaccine; and LAIV3 is a live, attenuated virus vaccine. Except for some jurisdictions in China, the influenza vaccine is a non-immunization program vaccine-voluntarily and self-paid. China CDC has issued 'Technical Guidelines for Seasonal Influenza Vaccination in China' every year from 2018 to 2021. Over the past year, new research evidence has been published at home and abroad. To better guide the prevention and control of influenza and vaccination in China, the National Immunization Advisory Committee (NIAC) Influenza Vaccination Technical Working Group updated and revised the 2021-2022 Technical Guidelines with the latest research progress into the 'Technical Guidelines for Seasonal Influenza Vaccination in China (2022-2023)'. The new version has updated five key areas: (1) new research evidence-especially research conducted in China-has been added, including new estimates of the burden of influenza disease, assessments of influenza vaccine effectiveness and safety, and analyses of the cost-effectiveness of influenza vaccination; (2) policies and measures for influenza prevention and control that were issued by the government over the past year; (3) influenza vaccines approved for marketing in China this year; (4) composition of trivalent and quadrivalent influenza vaccines for the 2022-2023 northern hemisphere influenza season; and (5) recommendations for influenza vaccination during the 2022-2023 influenza season. The 2022-2023 Guidelines recommend that vaccination clinics provide influenza vaccination services to all people aged 6 months and above who are willing to be vaccinated and have no contraindications to the influenza vaccine. For adults ≥ 18 years, co-administration of COVID-19 and inactivated influenza vaccines in separate arms is acceptable regarding immunogenicity and reactogenicity. For people under 18 years old, there should be at least 14 days between influenza vaccination and COVID-19 vaccination. The Guidelines express no preference for influenza vaccine type or manufacturer-any approved, age-appropriate influenza vaccines can be used. To minimize harm from influenza and limit the impact on the effort to prevent and control COVID-19 in China, the Technical Guidelines recommend priority vaccination of the following high-risk groups during the upcoming 2022-2023 influenza season: (1) healthcare workers, including clinical doctors and nurses, public health professionals, and quarantine professionals; (2) volunteers and staff who provide services and support for large events; (3) people living in nursing homes or welfare homes and staff who take care of vulnerable, at-risk individuals; (4) people who work in high population density settings, including teachers and students in kindergartens and primary and secondary schools, and prisoners and prison staff; and (5) people at high risk of influenza, including adults ≥ 60 years of age, children 6-59 months of age, individuals with comorbidities or underlying medical conditions, family members and caregivers of infants under 6 months of age, and pregnant women. Children 6 months to 8 years of age who receive inactivated influenza vaccine for the first time should receive two doses, with an inter-dose interval of 4 or more weeks. Children who previously received the influenza vaccine and anyone 9 years or older need only one dose. LAIV is recommended only for a single dose regardless of the previous influenza vaccination. Vaccination should begin as soon as influenza vaccines become available and preferably should be completed before the onset of the local influenza season. Repeated influenza vaccination during a single influenza season is not recommended. Vaccination clinics should provide immunization services throughout the epidemic season. Pregnant women can receive inactivated influenza vaccine at any stage of pregnancy. These guidelines are intended for use by staff of CDCs, healthcare workers, maternity and child care institutions and immunization clinic staff members who work on influenza control and prevention. The guidelines will be updated periodically as new evidence becomes available.
Adult ; Infant ; Female ; Pregnancy ; Humans ; Adolescent ; Child, Preschool ; Influenza Vaccines ; Influenza, Human/epidemiology* ; Seasons ; Pandemics ; COVID-19 ; COVID-19 Vaccines ; SARS-CoV-2 ; Vaccination ; China/epidemiology* ; Orthomyxoviridae ; Vaccines, Attenuated ; Vaccines, Combined ; Vaccines, Inactivated

As the implementation of national expanded program on immunization and the increase of non-immunization vaccine, the types and doses of vaccines for children are increasing accordingly. And the problems of 0-12 months children are more outstanding, which affects timely and entirely complete the vaccination. The use of combination vaccines, or simultaneous immunization which is also the future trend can simplify immunization procedures, increase vaccination rate and provide more protection for children. This paper was completed based on the review of the latest national and international literatures, immunization procedures and vaccine instructions, form the consensus of problems, challenges and solution of immunization strategies for 0-12 months children, with special aims to provide reference for reasonable vaccination arrangements for primary vaccination doctors in China.
Child ; Consensus ; Humans ; Immunization Programs ; Immunization Schedule ; Infant ; Vaccination/methods* ; Vaccines ; Vaccines, Combined

Influenza is an acute respiratory infectious disease that is caused by the influenza virus, which seriously affects human health. The influenza virus has frequent antigenic drifts that can facilitate escape from pre-existing population immunity and lead to the rapid spread and annual seasonal epidemics. Influenza outbreaks occur in crowded settings, such as schools, kindergartens, and nursing homes. Seasonal influenza epidemics can cause 3-5 million severe cases and 290 000-650 000 respiratory disease-related deaths worldwide every year. Pregnant women, infants, adults 60 years and older, and individuals with comorbidities or underlying medical conditions are at the highest risk of severe illness and death from influenza. Given the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, some provinces in southern China had a summer peak of influenza. 2019-nCoV may co-circulate with influenza and other respiratory viruses in the upcoming winter-spring influenza season. Annual influenza vaccination is an effective way to prevent influenza, reduce influenza-related severe illness and death, and reduce the harm caused by influenza-related diseases and the use of medical resources. The currently approved influenza vaccines in China include trivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV3), quadrivalent inactivated influenza vaccine (IIV4), and trivalent live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV3). IIV3 is produced as a split virus vaccine and subunit vaccine; IIV4 is produced as a split virus vaccine; and LAIV3 is a live, attenuated virus vaccine. Except for some jurisdictions in China, the influenza vaccine is a non-immunization program vaccine-voluntarily and self-paid. China CDC has issued "Technical Guidelines for Seasonal Influenza Vaccination in China" every year from 2018 to 2021. Over the past year, new research evidence has been published at home and abroad. To better guide the prevention and control of influenza and vaccination in China, the National Immunization Advisory Committee (NIAC) Influenza Vaccination Technical Working Group updated and revised the 2021-2022 Technical Guidelines with the latest research progress into the "Technical Guidelines for Seasonal Influenza Vaccination in China (2022-2023)." The new version has updated five key areas: (1) new research evidence－especially research conducted in China－has been added, including new estimates of the burden of influenza disease, assessments of influenza vaccine effectiveness and safety, and analyses of the cost-effectiveness of influenza vaccination; (2) policies and measures for influenza prevention and control that were issued by the government over the past year; (3) influenza vaccines approved for marketing in China this year; (4) composition of trivalent and quadrivalent influenza vaccines for the 2022-2023 northern hemisphere influenza season; and (5) recommendations for influenza vaccination during the 2022-2023 influenza season. The 2022-2023 Guidelines recommend that vaccination clinics provide influenza vaccination services to all people aged 6 months and above who are willing to be vaccinated and have no contraindications to the influenza vaccine. For adults ≥18 years, co-administration of COVID-19 and inactivated influenza vaccines in separate arms is acceptable regarding immunogenicity and reactogenicity. For people under 18 years old, there should be at least 14 days between influenza vaccination and COVID-19 vaccination. The Guidelines express no preference for influenza vaccine type or manufacturer－any approved, age-appropriate influenza vaccines can be used. To minimize harm from influenza and limit the impact on the effort to prevent and control COVID-19 in China, the Technical Guidelines recommend priority vaccination of the following high-risk groups during the upcoming 2022-2023 influenza season: (1) healthcare workers, including clinical doctors and nurses, public health professionals, and quarantine professionals; (2) volunteers and staff who provide services and support for large events; (3) people living in nursing homes or welfare homes and staff who take care of vulnerable, at-risk individuals; (4) people who work in high population density settings, including teachers and students in kindergartens and primary and secondary schools, and prisoners and prison staff; and (5) people at high risk of influenza, including adults ≥60 years of age, children 6-59 months of age, individuals with comorbidities or underlying medical conditions, family members and caregivers of infants under 6 months of age, and pregnant women. Children 6 months to 8 years of age who receive inactivated influenza vaccine for the first time should receive two doses, with an inter-dose interval of 4 or more weeks. Children who previously received the influenza vaccine and anyone 9 years or older need only one dose. LAIV is recommended only for a single dose regardless of the previous influenza vaccination. Vaccination should begin as soon as influenza vaccines become available, and preferably should be completed before the onset of the local influenza season. Repeated influenza vaccination during a single influenza season is not recommended. Vaccination clinics should provide immunization services throughout the epidemic season. Pregnant women can receive inactivated influenza vaccine at any stage of pregnancy. These guidelines are intended for use by staff of CDCs, healthcare workers, maternity and child care institutions and immunization clinic staff members who work on influenza control and prevention. The guidelines will be updated periodically as new evidence becomes available.
Pregnancy ; Adult ; Infant ; Female ; Humans ; Adolescent ; Child, Preschool ; Influenza Vaccines ; Influenza, Human/prevention & control* ; Seasons ; COVID-19 ; COVID-19 Vaccines ; Pandemics ; Vaccination ; Vaccines, Attenuated ; Vaccines, Combined ; China/epidemiology*

Objective: To determine IgG antibody levels of measles, rubella, mumps in healthy population in Shanghai from 2010 to 2020 and analyze the trend of antibody changes in different age groups. Methods: 10 828 healthy people without measles, rubella and mumps in Shanghai were included in the study from 2010 to 2020. Serum samples were collected from 12 age groups, and the serum IgG antibody of measles, rubella and mumps were detected by ELISA. The difference of antibody positive rates and antibody levels were analyzed. Results: The median age M (Q₁, Q₃) of 10 828 objects were 8 years old (9 months old, 20 years old). Males accounted for 48.34% (5 234/10 828) and females accounted for 50.92% (5 514/10 828). Unknown gender information accounted for 0.74% (80/10 828), and 27.03% (2 927/10 828) of participants had unknown MMR immunization history. The total positive rates of measles, rubella and mumps IgG antibody were 76.78%, 64.46% and 64.29% and their GMCs were 541.45 mIU/ml, 31.76 IU/ml and 133.73 U/ml respectively. There were significant differences in serum IgG antibody GMC of measles, rubella and mumps in each year (F_measles=180.74, P<0.001; F_rubella=189.95, P<0.001; F_mumps=122.40, P<0.001). The positive rate of measles antibody was higher than that of rubella and mumps, and the difference was statistically significant (χ²=518.09, P<0.001). Conclusion: The level of measles IgG antibody in healthy people in Shanghai is higher, while the level of rubella and mumps IgG antibody is slightly lower.
Adult ; Antibodies, Viral ; Child ; China/epidemiology* ; Female ; Humans ; Immunoglobulin G ; Infant ; Male ; Measles/prevention & control* ; Measles-Mumps-Rubella Vaccine ; Mumps/prevention & control* ; Mumps virus ; Rubella/prevention & control* ; Young Adult

HPV vaccination is the most effective way for preventing the cervical cancer. To respond the WHO calling for cervical cancer elimination, some Chinese provincial governments are launching the Free HPV Vaccination Programs for teenagers. Basing on the current stage of domestic utilization and the global immunization strategies of HPV vaccination, this paper provides a comprehensive review of the key aspects in the process of HPV vaccination, including subjects and priority vaccination population, vaccination dose and time interval, the principal of vaccination replacement, and the vaccination suggestion on special populations, etc. The article above contents and gives the advice on the immunization strategy of HPV vaccination in China.
AIDS Vaccines ; Adolescent ; BCG Vaccine ; China ; Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis Vaccine ; Female ; Humans ; Immunization Programs ; Influenza Vaccines ; Measles-Mumps-Rubella Vaccine ; Papillomavirus Infections/prevention & control* ; Papillomavirus Vaccines ; Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines ; SAIDS Vaccines ; Uterine Cervical Neoplasms ; Vaccination

Objective: To analyze the dropout of adsorbed diphtheria, tetanus and acellular pertussis combined vaccine (DTaP) routine immunization in China in 2019. Methods: DTaP vaccination data in all counties in China were collected through National Immunization Program Information Management System in 2019. Cumulative dropout rate and vaccination rate of DTaP in different provinces were calculated. According to the P₂₅, P₅₀ and P₇₅ values of DTaP dropout rate for all counties by province, counties in each province were divided into four groups (Q₁-Q₄). The DTaP average dropout rate of four groups and absolute difference (difference in DTaP average dropout rate between Q₄ and Q₁) were calculated. Spearman rank correlation was used to analyze the relationship between absolute difference and provincial DTaP dropout rate, DTaP₁ and DTaP₃ vaccination rate. Results: DTaP₁ vaccination rate ranged from 92.98% to 99.94% by province, with a median of 99.55%. Provincial DTaP dropout rate ranged from 0.36% to 28.66%, with a median of 3.54%. The provincial DTaP dropout rate was more than 10% in Gansu and Guizhou, about 28.66% and 17.19%. Absolute difference ranged from 4.02% to 39.22%, with a median of 10.16%. Provinces with the largest absolute difference were Gansu, Qinghai, Liaoning and Guizhou, about 39.22%, 34.48%, 23.31% and 21.33%, respectively. Correlation analysis indicated that the absolute difference was positively correlated with provincial DTaP dropout rate, with a correlation coefficient of 0.492 (P=0.004). It was negatively correlated with DTaP₁ and DTaP₃ vaccination rate. Correlation coefficients were -0.542 (P=0.001) and -0.562 (P=0.001), respectively. Conclusions: There are significant county-level differences in DTap dropout rate in most provinces, with relatively high difference in western provinces.
Humans ; Infant ; Whooping Cough/prevention & control* ; Diphtheria-Tetanus-Pertussis Vaccine ; Diphtheria-Tetanus-acellular Pertussis Vaccines ; Vaccination ; China ; Immunization, Secondary ; Immunization Schedule ; Antibodies, Bacterial

Epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis (meningococcal meningitis) is an acute respiratory infectious disease with high mortality and serious sequelae. Meningococcal vaccine is an effective measure to prevent and control meningococcal meningitis. At present, group B meningococcal meningitis has become the main prevalent serum group in the world, including China. Meningococcal ACYW and other vaccines are mainly composed of capsular polysaccharides, while the main component of group B meningococcal vaccine is protein, including outer membrane vesicles (OMV) and recombinant protein vaccine. The methods for evaluating the immunogenicity of group B meningococcal vaccine include hSBA and alternative methods such as meningococcal antigen typing system (MATS), flow cytometric meningococcal antigen surface expression assay (MEASURE), genetic meningococcal antigen typing system (gMATS) and bexsero antigen sequence type (BAST). The evaluation of vaccine immunogenicity is the basis of vaccine development and clinical trial research, However, at present, there is no group B meningococcal vaccine in China. Therefore, in this paper, the research progress of immunogenicity evaluation of group B meningococcal vaccine has been reviewed, in order to provide technical guidance for the research and development of group B meningococcal vaccine, immunogenicity evaluation and clinical trial research in China.
Humans ; Meningitis, Meningococcal/prevention & control* ; Meningococcal Vaccines ; Neisseria meningitidis ; Serogroup ; Vaccines, Combined