This article systematically reviews the characteristics and trends of the writing, editing, publication and promotion of physiology textbooks in China from the late 19th century to the present, focusing on the introduction, development and innovation of Chinese physiology textbooks. The development of physiology textbooks in China is divided into four main stages: the introduction and initial development of physiology textbooks from the late 19th century to 1925; the localization and diversification of textbooks from 1926 to 1949, after the establishment of the Chinese Physiological Society; the exploratory phase of textbook construction after the founding of the People's Republic of China from 1949 to 1976; the formation and innovation of the textbook development process from 1977 to the present, following the restoration of the college entrance examination. For each phase, the article not only records the historical development of physiology textbooks, but also analyzes the evolution of their content, writing styles and the interaction with the social and political contexts. The article summarizes the characteristics and experiences of all these four phases. Special attention is given to the comprehensive statistical analysis of physiology textbooks published since the restoration of the college entrance examination and Economic Reform and Opening-up in 1977, revealing the changes in the number, publication trends and academic features of textbooks during this period. Finally, the article presets the future development of physiology textbooks in China, proposing that textbook writing should integrate aspects such as ideological and political education, medical humanities, basic and clinical medicine, health education, scientific research and international exchange and collaboration. The article also advocates for the application of new technologies and methods, such as artificial intelligence, virtual teaching models and knowledge graphs, to support "personalized learning". This research provides a systematic reference for the study of the history of medical education and offers theoretical support for the future innovation of physiology textbook in China.
Humans ; China ; History, 19th Century ; History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; Physiology/education* ; Textbooks as Topic/history*

This article aimed to explain the reasons why Asian spices including pepper, ginger, and cinnamon were considered as special and valuable drugs with curative powers in the Medieval Europe. Among these spices, pepper was most widely and frequently used as medicine according to medieval medical textbooks. We analyzed three main pharmacology books written during the Middle Ages. One of the main reasons that oriental spices were widely used as medicine was due to the particular medieval medical system fundamentally based on the humoral theory invented by Hippocrates and Galen. This theory was modified by Arab physicians and imported to Europe during the Middle Ages. According to this theory, health is determined by the balance of the following four humors which compose the human body: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Each humor has its own qualities such as cold, hot, wet, and dry. Humoral imbalance was one of the main causes of disease, so it was important to have humoral equilibrium. Asian spices with hot and dry qualities were used to balance the cold and wet European diet. The analysis of several major medical textbooks of the Middle Ages proves that most of the oriental spices with hot and dry qualities were employed to cure diverse diseases, particularly those caused by coldness and humidity. However, it should be noted that the oriental spices were considered to be much more valuable and effective as medicines than the local medicinal ingredients, which were not only easily procured but also were relatively cheap. Europeans mystified oriental spices, with the belief that they have marvelous and mysterious healing powers. Such mystification was related to the terrestrial Paradise. They believed that the oriental spices were grown in Paradise which was located in the Far East and were brought to the Earthly world along the four rivers flowing from the Paradise.
Asia ; Europe ; History, Medieval ; Humans ; Phytotherapy/*history ; *Reference Books, Medical ; Spices/*history ; Textbooks as Topic/*history

This thesis is a research how the medical history described and organized in the Korean history textbook to compare the 7th educational program from 2002 to the 6th educational program from 1994-2001 in Korea. The medical history is divided into two parts as social system, science and technology but so small amount. In addition, it is impossible to study medical history in its own program. And we can't find any significant difference between the 6th edition and the 7th edition in the state Korean History textbook. In the Korean Modern and Contemporary History textbook, we can find more abundant and systematical approach from some textbooks published by Joongang and Geumsung company than 6th edition Korean History. The change of textbook system to authorized textbook system makes some advance. However four other books don't show much improvement. On the other hand, the contents are so much devoted into the introduction of medical system and books even in the advanced textbooks. Therefore we have to make the students to understand the life of the past and the present with the concrete contents and intimating of the living history. Besides medical historians have to participate in the process to publish the textbook.
Dissertations, Academic/*history ; *Historiography ; History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; Korea ; Textbooks/*history

This paper explores historical backgrounds and contents of Treatise on Medicine written by King Sejo (r.1455-1468) including his views on traditional medicine and pharmacy in the early Chosen period. The Treatise declared by King Sejo in 1463 has been considered as an important and unique manual of medicine because it was the exclusive example written by the king of Chosen. It was the King Sejo's era when the medical milieu in both social and medical aspects was highly encouraged thanks to the previous achievements by King Sejong the Great (r.1418-1450). King Sejo, in particular, who was much interested in practical learning called 'Miscellaneous Studies' emphasized on court medicine. His writing can be understood in such historical frame. Another reason why he wrote the Treatise can be said that he felt necessary for establishing the medical ethic codes for inefficient court medicine-officials. In personal background, he tried to find available remedies since he had been suffered from some chronic diseases. The contents of the Treatise can be broadly fallen to the clinical and ethical aspects, In the former one, the Treatise focuses on treatment without hesitation through the sharp and exact diagnosis by medical doctors. In the latter one, eight categories of medical doctors are discussed according to their moral degrees, sim'eui, sik'eui, yak'eui, hon'eui, kwang'eui, mang'eui, sa'eui, and sal'eui. Finally, musim'ji-eui was supplemented. Among them, sal'eui, medicine-official laking both medical ability and ethical attitude, was classified as the lowest degree, sim'eui, medicine-official sincerely making his all efforts for patients, was thought to be a paragon of medical morality. In conclusion, the Treatise on Medicine by King Sejo played an important role as a manual for the principle of medical practice and for the instruction to enhance ethical attitude among medicine-officials.
English Abstract ; *Famous Persons ; History of Medicine, 15th Cent. ; History of Medicine, Early Modern ; Korea ; *Medicine ; State Medicine/*history ; Textbooks/*history

Kim Pil Soon was born at Sorae Village of Hwang Hye Province, the birth place of the Protestantism in Korean. He was brought up under the strong influence of Christianity and received modern education at Pae Chae School according to the ecommendation of Rev. Underwood. In 1899, Kim Pil Soon, who had been working at Je Joong Won as an assistant and nterpreter of Dr. Sharrocks, was employed by Dr. Avison to help preparing medical textbooks and asked to participate in the medical education. He acquired medical knowledges through his work of translating various medical texts, and which enabled him to teach other medical students. He participated in the administration of the Hospital, taking charge of the provision of meals for in-patients as well as directing the construction of Severance Hospital buildings. And his experience of treating soldiers wounded during the turmoil of the forced dismission of the Korean Army by the Japanese lead him to reflect seriously on Korea's fate in peril. In addition, he became a member of Sinmin Society, a secret political association, to engage in the independence movement. In 1908, Kim Pil Soon graduated from Severance Hospital Medical School as one of the first seven graduates. On graduation, he was appointed as a professor and took the charge of school affaires in 1910. At first, he worked as a assistant physician of ward and surgery, then he took the responsibility of out-patient clinic in 1911. But suddenly, in December 1911, he exiled to China to escape from the Japanese police who was in pursuit of him on account of his involvement in the so-called 105-Person Affaire, a fabricated affaire served as a pretext for the persecution of independence movement. He continued the independence movement in the form of an ideal village movement and training the Independence Army. In 1919, however, he was poisoned to death in a mysterious way. Kim Pil Soon dedicated himself to the independence movement that demands personal sacrifice: giving up his prospective career as a doctor, professor, and hospital administrator. He no longer remained as a ordinary clinician who treats only diseased persons, but transformed himself to the Great Doctor, a time-old ideal type of doctor in the East Asian countries who treats and cures the diseased nation, by dedicating himself to the independence movement.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; *Freedom ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Missions and Missionaries/*history ; *Politics ; Portraits ; Publishing/*history ; Textbooks/*history

Kwang Hye Won(Je Joong Won), the first western hospital in Korea, was founded in 1885. The first Medical School in Korea was open in 1886 under the hospital management. Dr. O. R. Avison, who came to Korea in 1893, resumed the medical education there, which was interrupted for some time before his arrival in Korea. He inaugurated translating and publishing medical textbooks with the help of Kim Pil Soon who later became one of the first seven graduates in Severance Hospital Medical school. The first medical textbook translated into Korean was Henry Gray's {Anatomy}. However, this twice-translated manuscripts were never to be published on account of being lost and burnt down. The existing early anatomy textbooks, the editions of 1906 and 1909, are not the translation of Gray's {Anatomy}, but that of Japanese anatomy textbook of Gonda. The remaining oldest medical textbook in Korean is {Inorganic Materia Medica} published in 1905. This book is unique among its kinds that O. R. Avison is the only translator of the book and it contains the prefaces of O. R. Avison and Kim Pil Soon. The publication of medical textbook was animated by the participation of other medical students, such as Hong Suk Hoo and Hong Jong Eun. The list of medical textbooks published includes almost all the field of medicine. The medical textbooks in actual existence are as follows. {Inorganic Materia Medica (1905)}, {Inorganic Chemistry(1906)}, {Anatomy I(1906)}, {Physiology(1906)}, {Diagnostics I(1906)}, {Diagnostics II(1907)}, {Obstetrics(1908)}, {Organic Chemistry (1909)}, {Anatomy(1909)}, {Surgery(1910)}.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Schools, Medical/*history ; Textbooks/*history ; *Translations ; Western World

The education of Introduction to Medicine for the medical students can be traced back to the Hippocratic medicine in ancient Greece, when regarded some essays on the nature of medical care in Corpus Hippocraticum. However, its modern precurser may be the medical historian, Henry Sigerist who published the book: Einfuhrung in die Medizin (Introduction to Medicine) in 1931 on the basis of his lecture at Leipzig University. Influenced probably by the German medical tradition the education of the Introduction to Medicine has been flourished in the medical schools in Japan since 1941. In Korea the course has been introduced in 1971 and only few universities have adopted it as the regular course for medical students, while the education of behavioral science in the medical schools became more popular since 1970. The objectives and the contents of the education of the Intorduction to Medicine seem to be different according to the organizer of this course. This study deals with the questions about the objectives and contents of the Introduction to Medicine. Fourteen books by twelve authors entitled with either the Introduction to Medicine or the relevant one which were published in Japan, except for the above mentioned book of Sigerist, since 1945 were under the investigation. The motivations and the purposes of the authors for the publications of the books and their contents were compared each other in which the guidelines for the education of Introduction to Medicine were indirectly reflected. From this investigations it was recognized, the ways of editing or writing such books were so diverse that one could not elucidate any unitary direction. However, one could classify the books into three major categories in their approaches. One was a philosophical approach toward the nature of medicine including the nature of science, nature of life, the nature of man and the medical care and it was represented by Omotaka Hisayuki, the philosopher and medical ontologist in Japan. The second one was the historical approach toward the nature of the medicine represented by Sigerist and adopted partly by Kawakita in Japan. The third category was the combinations of both philosophical and historical approaches. In discussion the objectives and contents of the education of Introduction to Medicine of Seoul National University premedical course were demonstrated and also the newly published book of Introduction to Medicine volume I, II, III in Korea edited by the author. The similarities and differences of the course of 'Introduction to Medicine' from the 'Medical Overview or Guide to Medicine' from 'Behavioral Science' and from the course of 'the Medical History' were taken into consideration. As a conclusion it was suggested that the Introduction to Medicine should remain as an unique scientific field and curriculum for the medical students, as Omotaka has emphasized. The goal of this science should be set in search for the ultimate nature of the medicine and the nature of its objects; the life, man, illness and healing and also physician and patient in the human society. As for the methodological approach the author had preferences for uniqueness, creativity and flexibility in construction of the curriculum of the Introduction to Medicine rather than to try to standardize the curriculum common to all universities. It seems, however, to be desirable that the approaches are comprehensive and interdisciplinary including both philosophical and historical approaches in addition to the psychological, sociocultural and anthropological approaches.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; Germany ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Japan ; Korea ; Publishing/*history ; Textbooks/*history

The first modern hospital, royal Kwang-Hye-Won (House of Extended Grace) was established in April of 1885, whose name was changed into royal Che-Jung-Won (House of Helpfulness) in several days. Private(not royal) Je-Jung-Won opened its Medical School in 1899. And the teachers composed of western missionaries taught some Korean student-assistants the Western medicine with English textbooks in English. With very low effectiveness of teaching due to language barrier, Dr. Avison, the principal of that school decided to write medical textbooks in Korean. At first he tried to translate Henry Gray's Anatomy of 1859. In the effort he referred some Chinese and Japanese medical books. With that reason, we can find many Japanese style medical terms in some medical books of his. On the other hand, Eui-Hak-Kyo(The Medical School) was established by the Government of Dae-Han Empire in 1899. The teaching staff of the school published medical textbooks in Korean, some of which were written by Japanese doctors. After the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, Japanese government forced teachers of the school to teach with Japanese medical books and to speak Japanese in teaching. In 1915 the Act of Private Education was declared, which forced Japanese spoken in teaching even in the private medical school, Severance Medical School(later self of private Che-Jung-Won). In these ways, Japanese medical terms of Chinese letter were introduced without prudent consolidation, which evoke not a few problems in medical terms and education still now.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Japan ; Korea ; Textbooks/*history ; Translations ; Western World