Previous studies have identified two group-level processes, neural representations of interracial between-group difference and intraracial within-group similarity, that contribute to the racial categorization of faces. What remains unclear is how the brain tracks race-related information that varies across different faces as an individual-level neural process involved in race perception. In three studies, we recorded functional MRI signals when Chinese adults performed different tasks on morphed faces in which proportions of pixels contributing to perceived racial identity (Asian vs White) and expression (pain vs neutral) varied independently. We found that, during a pain expression judgment task, tracking other-race and same-race-related information in perceived faces recruited the ventral occipitotemporal cortices and medial prefrontal/anterior temporal cortices, respectively. However, neural tracking of race-related information tended to be weakened during explicit race judgments on perceived faces. During a donation task, the medial prefrontal activity also tracked race-related information that distinguished between two perceived faces for altruistic decision-making and encoded the Euclidean distance between the two faces that predicted decision-making speeds. Our findings revealed task-dependent neural mechanisms underlying the tracking of race-related information during face perception and altruistic decision-making.
Adult ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Young Adult ; Brain/diagnostic imaging* ; Brain Mapping ; Decision Making/physiology* ; Facial Recognition/physiology* ; Judgment/physiology* ; Magnetic Resonance Imaging ; Photic Stimulation ; Racial Groups ; Social Perception ; East Asian People

Social working memory (SWM)-the ability to maintain and manipulate social information in the brain-plays a crucial role in social interactions. However, research on SWM is still in its infancy and is often treated as a unitary construct. In the present study, we propose that SWM can be conceptualized as having two relatively independent components: "externally oriented SWM" (e-SWM) and "internally oriented SWM" (i-SWM). To test this external-internal hypothesis, participants were tasked with memorizing and ranking either facial expressions (e-SWM) or personality traits (i-SWM) associated with images of faces. We then examined the neural correlates of these two SWM components and their functional roles in empathy. The results showed distinct activations as the e-SWM task activated the postcentral and precentral gyri while the i-SWM task activated the precuneus/posterior cingulate cortex and superior frontal gyrus. Distinct multivariate activation patterns were also found within the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex in the two tasks. Moreover, partial least squares analyses combining brain activation and individual differences in empathy showed that e-SWM and i-SWM brain activities were mainly correlated with affective empathy and cognitive empathy, respectively. These findings implicate distinct brain processes as well as functional roles of the two types of SWM, providing support for the internal-external hypothesis of SWM.
Humans ; Memory, Short-Term/physiology* ; Male ; Female ; Empathy/physiology* ; Young Adult ; Magnetic Resonance Imaging ; Adult ; Brain/diagnostic imaging* ; Brain Mapping ; Facial Expression ; Social Behavior ; Facial Recognition/physiology* ; Social Perception ; Personality/physiology*

Perception ; Pupil ; Social Interaction

BACKGROUND: No head to head comparison is available between surgical lip lifting and upper lip filler injections to decide which technique yields the best results in patients. Despite the growing popularity of upper lip augmentation, its effect on societal perceptions of attractiveness, successfulness and overall health in woman is unknown. METHODS: Blinded casual observers viewed three versions of independent images of 15 unique patient lower faces for a total of 45 images. Observers rated the attractiveness, perceived success, and perceived overall health for each patient image. Facial perception questions were answered on a visual analog scale from 0 to 100, where higher scores corresponded to more positive responses. RESULTS: Two hundred and seventeen random observers with an average age of 47 years (standard deviation, 15.9) rated the images. The majority of observers were females (n=183, 84%) of white race (n=174, 80%) and had at least some college education (n=202, 93%). The marginal mean score for perceived attractiveness from the natural condition was 1.5 points (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.9–2.18) higher than perceived attractiveness from the simulated upper lip filler injection condition, and 2.6 points higher (95% CI, 1.95–3.24) than the simulated upper lip lift condition. There was a moderate to strong correlation between the scores of the same observer. CONCLUSIONS: Simulated upper lip augmentation is amenable to social perception analysis. Scores of the same observer for attractiveness, successfulness, and overall health are strongly correlated. Overall, the natural condition had the highest scores in all categories, followed by simulated upper lip filler, and lastly simulated upper lip lift.
Continental Population Groups ; Education ; Female ; Head ; Humans ; Lifting ; Lip ; Photography ; Social Perception ; Surgery, Plastic ; Visual Analog Scale

PURPOSE: The aim of the study was to investigate the social perceptions of the baby box and infant abandonment. METHODS: The study included a survey on social perceptions of infant abandonment, including the baby box and permissiveness of infant abandonment. F-tests and t-tests were performed to clarify the differences in permissiveness of infant abandonment based on general characteristics. RESULTS: First, it was found that awareness of the baby box was high, and positive perceptions were slightly higher than negative perceptions due to the value placed on the abandoned child's life and safety, the unavoidable reasons for not rearing a child, and the child's quality of life after abandonment. However, the reasons for negative attitudes toward the baby box included the increase in infant abandonment and the decrease in parental responsibility toward the child. Second, the permissiveness of infant abandonment was generally low; however, the level of permissiveness differed according to age, education level, status, and marital status. For people who are in their 30s or older, hold a graduate or higher level degree, are employed, and are married, the permissiveness of infant abandonment was lower than that of others. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that the current support policy for unmarried mothers should be changed to improve the economic and social conditions of child care. Furthermore, we must strive to improve the social perceptions of various family structures, including unmarried parents and their children.
Child ; Child Abuse ; Child Care ; Education ; Humans ; Illegitimacy ; Infant ; Marital Status ; Parents ; Permissiveness ; Quality of Life ; Single Person ; Social Conditions ; Social Perception

“Yong-yi” means “quack” in English, which generally refers to a doctor who does not have good medical skills. In the Ming and Qing dynasties in China, various criticism about “Yong-yi” became popularized, and by the late Qing period, “quacks” had become a serious social issue. The theory of traditional Chinese medicine was developed during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and local medical resources also increased. Moreover, the prevalence of medical book publishing led to the openness and generalization of medical knowledge. As a result, not only the number of doctors increased, but also the number of doctors who lack medical knowledge and clinical experience increased. However, at the outset, “Yong-yi” did not only mean doctors with poor medical skills. “Yong-yi” also reflected conflicts and contradictions between doctors. Doctors consistently criticized quacks in an attempt to maintain their identity as a “good” doctor or a Confucian doctor. In this sense, “Yong-yi” was used among physicians as an expression of discrimination and exclusion. The concept of “quackery” was also determined by the relationship between patients and doctors. In general, itinerant doctors, midwives and shaman doctors were regarded as “Yong-yi”; however, they served the medical needs of various patients. Thus, to some extent, “Yong-yi” were also useful medical resources. On the contrary, in certain situations, “shiyi,” physicians who serviced a family for generations and were generally believed to be reliable and as trustworthy doctors, were also labelled as quacks, especially when the patient did not trust them or was not satisfied with the treatment. Therefore, doctors' thoughts about “Yong-yi” did not always coincide with patients' thoughts about “Yong-yi.” However, by the late Qing period, the description of quacks in media reports found a singular connotation, and the divergent social image of quacks disappeared. By this time, quacks were uniformly described as ignorant and irresponsible Chinese medicine practitioners. Specifically, in one murder case in which a “Yong-yi” was accused as the murderer, the report unilaterally reported the patient's claims. Consequently, Chinese medicine practitioners who failed in their treatment of patients became labeled as “quack” doctors. In newspaper reports, “Yong-yi” no longer simply referred to individual cases of “quacks” but had come to represent the entirety of the Chinese medicine practitioner community. On the contrary, Western medical doctors who replaced the status of traditional doctors were positively portrayed. Pictorials also had similar perspectives with newspapers, supporting the narrative of the news with ironic drawings and articles. Overall, media reports regarding “Yong-yi” did not focus on reporting facts, but they had the purpose of making quacks a serious social problem.
Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; China ; Discrimination (Psychology) ; Family Characteristics ; Generalization (Psychology) ; Homicide ; Humans ; Iron ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Midwifery ; Periodicals ; Prevalence ; Social Perception ; Social Problems

In the 15th century, Joseon dynasty's goal for the stabilization of the ruling system, the ideological freedom of the era, and the necessity of medicine due to the introduction of Jin and Yuan dynasty's medicine led to the increased interest in medicine by the nobility along with tolerant practice. The practice of reading medical books is a good example of this institutional demonstration. However, by the end of the 15th century, a noticeable change had taken place. Within the nobility, there was an ideological rigidity regarding technology other than those of Confucianism, as the nobility became concentrated on the principles of Neo-Confucianism. In addition, as the publication of large-scale editions such as Ŭibangyuch'wi (the Classified Collection of Medical Prescriptions) came to an end, they have become less inclined to nurture talent at the level of the central government as in the previous period. In addition, as the discrimination against illegitimate children became stronger, technical bureaucrats such as medical officials, which were open to illegitimate children, came to be seen in increasingly disdainful and differentiated manners. From the late Sejong period to the early Seongjong period, the entrance of illegitimate sons into the medical bureaucracy solidified the negligence of medicine by the nobility. After then, the medical bureaucracy came to be monopolized by illegitimate sons. As for illegitimate sons, they were not allowed to enter society through Confucian practices, and as such, the only way for them to enter the government was by continuing to gain experience as technical bureaucrats. Technical posts that became dominated by illegitimate sons became an object of contempt by the nobility, and the cycle reproduced itself with the social perception that legitimate sons of the nobility could not become a medical official. Medical officials from the Yi clan of Yangseong had been legitimate sons and passers of the civil service examination in the 15th century. However, in the 16th century, only illegitimate sons became medical officials. The formation of Jungin (middleclass) in technical posts since the middle of the Joseon period is also related to this phenomenon. The Yi clan of Yangseong that produced medical officials for 130years over four generations since Yi Hyoji, a medical book reading official, is an exemplary case of the change in the social perception in the early Joseon period regarding medical bureaucrats.
Aptitude ; Child ; Confucianism ; Discrimination (Psychology) ; Family Characteristics ; Freedom ; Humans ; Malpractice ; Publications ; Social Perception

OBJECTIVE: To survey knowledge about the factors that influence fertility in a reproductive-age population living in an urban area. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted using a questionnaire-based survey among both males and females aged 18–45 years living in the Bangkok metropolitan area. RESULTS: The mean age of the participants was 26.8±7.2 years (male, 41.9%; female, 58.1%). Of the participants, 53.1% had an undergraduate degree and 57.1% were single. Only one-fifth of the participants correctly identified the age when fecundity declines in male and female, the definition of infertility, and the period during the menstrual cycle with the highest chance of pregnancy. Approximately three-fourths of the participants correctly identified that cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and sexually transmitted infections affect fertility. CONCLUSION: A considerable knowledge gap about the factors that influence fertility was identified in reproductive-age individuals in an urban area of Thailand. This issue should be urgently addressed by promoting fertility awareness through education, discussions about social perceptions regarding fertility, and reliable sources of knowledge.
Age Factors ; Alcohol Drinking ; Asian Continental Ancestry Group* ; Cross-Sectional Studies* ; Education ; Female ; Fertility* ; Humans ; Infertility ; Male ; Menstrual Cycle ; Pregnancy ; Reproduction ; Sexually Transmitted Diseases ; Smoking ; Social Perception ; Thailand

OBJECTIVES: Information technology involves a risk of privacy violation in providing easy access to confidential information,such as personal information and medical information through the Internet. In this study, we investigated medical information security to gain a better understanding of trends in research related to medical information security. METHODS: We researched papers published on ‘의료정보’ and ‘medical information’ in various Korean journals during a 10-year period from 2005 to 2015. We also analyzed these journal papers for each fiscal year; these papers were categorized into the areas of literature research and empirical research, and were further subdivided according to themes and subjects. RESULTS: It was confirmed that 48 papers were submitted to 35 academic journals. There were 33 (68.8%) literature review articles, and analysis of secondary data was not carried out at all. In terms of empirical research, 8 (16.7%) surveys and 7 (14.6%) program developments were studied. As a result of analyzing these papers according to the research theme by research method, 17 (35.4%) papers on laws, systems, and policies were the most numerous. It was found that among the literature research papers on medical personnel were the most common, and among the empirical research papers, research on experts in information protection and medical personnel were the most common. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that further research should be done in terms of social perception, human resource development, and technology development to improve risk management in medical information systems.
Computer Security ; Electronic Health Records ; Empirical Research ; Hospital Information Systems ; Humans ; Industrial Development ; Information Systems ; Internet ; Jurisprudence ; Korea ; Medical Informatics ; Methods ; Privacy ; Risk Management ; Social Perception

PURPOSE: This study aimed to comprehend the real context of metabolic syndrome-related factors of Korean male blue-collar workers from small-sized companies based on the health belief model. METHODS: A total of 37 workers from three companies were interviewed, and three series of focus group interviews were conducted. Data were analyzed using deductive content analysis. RESULTS: Data were classified into four categories: knowledge, perceived susceptibility and severity, perceived barriers, and beliefs. Knowledge referred to low knowledge level; perceived susceptibility and severity referred to unawareness of susceptibility and severity; perceived barriers referred to shift work, overtime work, and a social context including having no choice but to drink; and beliefs referred to believing that health promotion behaviors do not relate to preventing metabolic syndrome, believing that one cannot prevent metabolic syndrome oneself, and believing that professional help is required. CONCLUSION: To prevent and reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome among Korean male blue-collar workers, interventions should focus on strategies to increase metabolic syndrome-related knowledge and perceptions, social support, and self-efficacy for practicing health behaviors. In addition, it is necessary to develop policies for establishing a healthy drinking culture in companies.
Drinking ; Focus Groups ; Health Behavior ; Health Promotion ; Humans ; Male ; Needs Assessment ; Qualitative Research ; Risk Reduction Behavior ; Social Perception