Since May 2022, a severe global Mpox epidemic has underscored the urgent need for a preventative vaccine. On September 16, 2022, the mainland of China reported its first case of imported Mpox, which was subsequently followed by a significant rise in domestic infections commencing from June 2023. This alarming trend has escalated the likelihood of localized outbreaks and covert transmission, posing a heightened risk to public health. Notably, the United States, many European countries, and Japan have approved the use of smallpox vaccines for Mpox prevention and emergency vaccination post-exposure, based on their cross-protection efficacy. In recent years, virology research has broadened its scope to include investigations into various novel vaccine approaches, such as nucleic acid-based vaccines, protein subunit vaccines, and epitope peptide vaccines, and other related methodologies. This review offers a thorough examination of the current global landscape of Mpox prevalence, delves into the advancements in Mpox vaccine development, and highlights the progress achieved in Mpox vaccine research, serving as a valuable resource and providing technical insights essential for the effective prevention and control of Mpox.
Humans ; Vaccine Development ; Smallpox Vaccine ; Smallpox/epidemiology* ; Mpox, Monkeypox

With the expansion of mpox virus infection from endemic to a global epidemic in 2022, the WHO declared that the mpox event constituted a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. Due to the high degree of gene sequence similarity among orthopox viruses and cross-reactive antibodies induced by orthoviruses, smallpox vaccination may affect the immune response induced by mpox virus infection. The analysis of the protective effects of smallpox vaccination against mpox virus infection will help define the focus of prevention and control. In this review, we clarify the protection of the smallpox vaccine against mpox virus infection by analyzing the correlation between smallpox vaccination, immune response status, and clinical data and providing evidence for the prevention, control, and strategies of mpox epidemics.
Humans ; Smallpox/epidemiology* ; Monkeypox/drug therapy* ; Smallpox Vaccine/therapeutic use* ; Vaccination ; Immunity

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to estimate the medical surge capacity required for mass prophylaxis based on a hypothetical outbreak of smallpox.METHODS: We performed a simulation using the Bioterrorism and Epidemic Outbreak Response Model and varied some important parameters, such as the number of core medical personnel and the number of dispensing clinics.RESULTS: Gaps were identified in the medical surge capacity of the Korean government, especially in the number of medical personnel who could respond to the need for mass prophylaxis against smallpox.CONCLUSIONS: The Korean government will need to train 1,000 or more medical personnel for such an event, and will need to prepare many more dispensing centers than are currently available.
Bioterrorism ; Korea ; Smallpox ; Surge Capacity ; Vaccination ; Variola virus

No abstract available.
History, Modern 1601- ; Korea ; Smallpox ; Vaccination

The level of terrorist threats using chemical, biological, and radiological agents has been continuously increasing, and it is an undeniable truth that these agents are actually in use today. The fact that most chemical, biological, and radiological agents cause skin-related symptoms, and that the skin symptoms are observed at a relatively early stage of the condition, leads to the conclusion that dermatologists could be the first point of contact for potential victims of these agents. It is highly important that first responders are able to recognize symptoms caused by these agents early and react quickly. Therefore, dermatologists do have a responsibility to take on a role in dealing with chemical, biological, and radiological attacks, and pre-equip themselves with professional knowledge in this field. Among the various types of chemical agents, typical examples of agents causing skin-related symptoms are blistering agents, which lead to bullae and necrosis on the skin. Biological agents are classified from Category A to C according to their respective risk factors. The most dangerous Category A agents include anthrax, smallpox, plague, tularemia, and viral hemorrhagic fever, all of which are known to show characteristic skin-related symptoms. Upon exposure to a certain level of radiation, radiological agents can also lead to erythema on the skin. In this article, we will discuss various characteristics and up-to-date treatment methods of potential chemical, biological, and radiological agents to help dermatologists advance their knowledge in this field.
Anthrax ; Biological Factors ; Blister ; Erythema ; Hemorrhagic Fevers, Viral ; Necrosis ; Plague ; Risk Factors ; Skin ; Smallpox ; Terrorism ; Tularemia ; Weapons

The level of terrorist threats using chemical, biological, and radiological agents has been continuously increasing, and it is an undeniable truth that these agents are actually in use today. The fact that most chemical, biological, and radiological agents cause skin-related symptoms, and that the skin symptoms are observed at a relatively early stage of the condition, leads to the conclusion that dermatologists could be the first point of contact for potential victims of these agents. It is highly important that first responders are able to recognize symptoms caused by these agents early and react quickly. Therefore, dermatologists do have a responsibility to take on a role in dealing with chemical, biological, and radiological attacks, and pre-equip themselves with professional knowledge in this field. Among the various types of chemical agents, typical examples of agents causing skin-related symptoms are blistering agents, which lead to bullae and necrosis on the skin. Biological agents are classified from Category A to C according to their respective risk factors. The most dangerous Category A agents include anthrax, smallpox, plague, tularemia, and viral hemorrhagic fever, all of which are known to show characteristic skin-related symptoms. Upon exposure to a certain level of radiation, radiological agents can also lead to erythema on the skin. In this article, we will discuss various characteristics and up-to-date treatment methods of potential chemical, biological, and radiological agents to help dermatologists advance their knowledge in this field.
Anthrax ; Biological Factors ; Blister ; Erythema ; Hemorrhagic Fevers, Viral ; Necrosis ; Plague ; Risk Factors ; Skin ; Smallpox ; Terrorism ; Tularemia ; Weapons

Heo Joon is one of the best-known physicians of the Chosun Dynasty, the last imperial dynasty (1392~1910) of Korea. He had served King Seonjo during his practice, and has produced many publications on medicine. Then, how did he actually treat the patients? So far, other than the case when he treated Gwanghaegun's smallpox, it is not clearly known how and when he attended and treated the ill. In his most famous book, the Treasured Mirror of Eastern Medicine (TMEM), he details the physiopathological mechanisms, diagnoses, treatments or prescriptions, and treatment cases, however, it is not clear if they're from his own clinical experiences. Nevertheless, based on the written method, the original information is reconstituted according to its respective editors of the TMEM, a particular case being included may be considered as an agreement and acceptance of an actual treatment executed. This research analyzes what type of medicinal theory that the main writer Heo Joon employed in his real treatments, as well as how he diagnosed and treated diseases. After analyzing the complete series of the TMEM, we found a total of 301 clinical cases. Here, one may wonder, why does the Section of Inner and External Bodily Elements, that deal with diseases and the structure of the body, have far outnumber cases than the Section of Miscellaneous Disorders? Why does the TMEM introduce the various types of disease experiences and treatment cases, medical cases, simple treatments, nurturing life, materia medica, and also include supernatural phenomena? Why does the TMEM include the experiences and cases from the book published in the Song, Jin, Yuan dynasty of China, moreover in the Ming Dynasty of its time. These questions can be answered to the extent that Heo Joon and the others who participated in completing the book sought to justify the new clinical medicine practices, and because it had to be acceptable to the Confucius beliefs which dominated the society, and also because the book came to light in a time when tensions between the pre-existing Chosun medicine and the newly introduced Chinese medicine were evident. Among the clinical cases in the TMEM, there are only 41 cases that can be considered as Medical Cases which include the pathology and treatment mechanism. After analyzing these mechanisms, we were able to discover that they cover not only the theories of the 4 great physicians of Jin-Yuan Dynasty, but also the theories of the Danxi's Medical Current, a big trend in the Early Ming Dynasty, and some of the most recent clinical cases that had been just reported at the time. However, Heo Joon did not lean towards a particular theory of medicine; rather, he insisted on establishing a classical medicine based on the traditional medicinal scriptures such as the Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon or Shennong's Classic of Materia Medica, and had created his own Body-Viscera medicine, as Shin Dongwon's recent research. Moreover, he successfully secured his own right to be a clinical physician by customizing the amount of medication in prescriptions for the people of Chosun. Heo Joon was one of the chief physicians for the Royal Family of the Chosun Dynasty. Despite the tendency of traditional medicine to lean towards Taoism or Fangshu, for him the most important thing was the actual treatment of diseases. As a result, Heo Joon successfully treated smallpox by utilizing traditional medicinal methods, by breaking the taboo of not using medication on such diseases, as well as he was able to treat an unknown disease, scarlet fever, by discovering the pathological mechanism of the illness. Also he made bold decisions on altering existing prescriptions to treat diseases more efficiently. The TMEM consists of not only justified methods that integrate the different and scattered medicinal and clinical practices, which many insisted their originality, but also was backed with Heo Joon's such credible and endeavored clinical medicine.
Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; China ; Clinical Medicine ; Diagnosis ; Humans ; Korea ; Materia Medica ; Medicine, Traditional ; Music ; Pathology ; Prescriptions ; Religious Philosophies ; Scarlet Fever ; Smallpox ; Taboo

Erythema nodosum is considered to be a hypersensitivity reaction to various conditions. Vaccination-related erythema nodosum is uncommon but cases associated with hepatitis B virus, human papillomavirus, tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis, rabies, smallpox, typhoid and cholera, and Bacille-Calmette-Guerin vaccinations have beenreported. A 33-year-old Korean woman presented with a 3-day history of painful erythematous plaques on both lower legs and knees. Prior to the development of the skin rash, she had received the pneumococcal polysaccharide conjugate vaccine Prevenar13(R). Histological examination of the left lower leg lesion revealed septal panniculitis without vasculitis. To the best of our knowledge, erythema nodosum caused by pneumococcal vaccination has not previously been reported. It is important for clinicians to be aware of this rare, yet potential, adverse effect to the pneumococcal vaccine.
Adult ; Cholera ; Diphtheria ; Erythema Nodosum* ; Erythema* ; Exanthema ; Female ; Hepatitis B virus ; Humans ; Hypersensitivity ; Knee ; Leg ; Panniculitis ; Rabies ; Smallpox ; Tetanus ; Typhoid Fever ; Vaccination ; Vasculitis ; Whooping Cough

While presenting biological characteristics of vaccinia virus and laboratory-acquired infections during related research processes, this paper focuses on benefits and risks of vaccinia virus immunization in relation to laboratory-acquired infections, describes characteristics and the adaptation of vaccinia virus vaccine, analyses the role vaccinia virus immunization plays in the prevention and control of laboratory-acquired infections, and finally proposes solutions and countermeasures to further promote and implement immune control strategies. The problem related to immune strategy and laboratory- acquired infections which is being raised, analyzed and explored plays an active and instructive role in vaccinia virus related researches and laboratory- acquired infections, and also helps to recommend and develop relevant immune strategy for future vaccine control of such infections.
Contraindications ; Humans ; Smallpox Vaccine ; adverse effects ; Vaccination ; standards ; Vaccinia ; immunology ; prevention & control ; Vaccinia virus ; immunology

This study reviewed the outbreak and prevalence of cattle plague around Byeongjahoran from the perspective of international war in East Asia. First of all, the epidemiological characteristics of cattle plague in Manchuria where the outbreak of cattle plague was first reported around Byeongjahoran were analyzed. From the study, it was found the military activities that Sarhu (Qing) had made during the growth into Empire promoted the exchanges of various germs which became naturalized in the regions in Northeast Asia, and that such extreme situation as war made various diseases taken place and dispersed. In particular, because of military activities of Sarhu (Qing), various contagious diseases including smallpox which was prevalent in Inner-Mongolia and Shanxi became prevalent in Manchuria. During the contacts with Chosun after Jeongmyohoran, pathogen occurring Rinderpest was introduced into Manchuria. Favorable conditions for the interactions with various pathogens were provided by frequent contacts with wild animals through hunting and various cultivation groups composed of Manchurians, Mongolians, Han-Chinese and Chosun people. Rinderpest breaking in Chosun around Byeongjahoran was originated in Shenyang in 1636. It was transmitted to cattle in the Korean Peninsula and expanded to Kansai Region. At that time Rinderpest occurred and rapidly expanded in a specific area due to the interactions of pathogens, hosts and environments, and suddenly disappeared because of the extinction and the separation of hosts. It is consistent with the symptoms of modern times 'Rinderpest.' In Chosun it occurred in Pyeongan-do 4 months before the outbreak of Byeongjahoran and gave great damage on the capital area and northern Gyeonggi region. Because of the large scale migration of militaries after Byeongjahoran, Rindpest was expanded to Hasamdo and was terminated in February to April leaving big damages. The damages of Byeongjahoran were very severe. From the statistical records, it was found that the mortality rate in Gyenggi-do was around 2/3, around 50% in Jeju area. The mortality rate of infected cattle was around 75%. In some records based on individual cases, 80-100% of mortality rate was addressed. It is comparable to 25% of mortality in 1627, and is near or less than the mortality rate of Rinderpest in the 19th and 20the century. When analyzing the expansion of Rinderpest from the perspective of place, the most damaged places were areas near the busy roads or the places with dense population. Therefore, the remote places far from busy roads or separated from the affected places right after the outbreak did not have much damage. Additionally, rich stock-feeders had relatively small damages and poor households with 1 or 2 stokes were badly affected. The prevention and supply of medication by government made considerably positive effects on the prevention and treatment of Finderpest.
Animals ; Animals, Wild ; Asia ; Cattle ; China ; Divorce ; Family Characteristics ; Humans ; Hypogonadism ; Military Personnel ; Mitochondrial Diseases ; Ophthalmoplegia ; Phenols ; Prevalence ; Rinderpest ; Smallpox