Myocarditis is characterized by inflammatory cell infiltration into the myocardium and a high risk of deteriorating cardiac function with a heterogeneous etiology. Both viral- and myosin-induced myocarditis experimental models are used to mimic myocarditis in humans. Here, coxsackie virus B3-induced and non-virus-induced myocarditis models and data obtained in clinical studies were reviewed. Experimental murine myocarditis following immunization with α-myosin together with complete Freund adjuvant represents the classical immune-mediated model. T helper 1 (Th1) and Th2 pathways and important cytokines are involved in the autoimmunity of myocarditis, and the dynamic balance between Th17 and regulatory T cell seems to have an important role in the process of myocarditis. The purpose of this review is to summarize the existing understanding of the immunological mechanisms underlying myocarditis and exploring gaps in knowledge in both animal and human studies, since these mechanistic insights are a critical requirement for the development of novel therapeutic and vaccination strategies.

Myocarditis is characterized by inflammatory cell infiltration into the myocardium and a high risk of deteriorating cardiac function with a heterogeneous etiology. Both viral- and myosin-induced myocarditis experimental models are used to mimic myocarditis in humans. Here, coxsackie virus B3-induced and non-virus-induced myocarditis models and data obtained in clinical studies were reviewed. Experimental murine myocarditis following immunization with α-myosin together with complete Freund adjuvant represents the classical immune-mediated model. T helper 1 (Th1) and Th2 pathways and important cytokines are involved in the autoimmunity of myocarditis, and the dynamic balance between Th17 and regulatory T cell seems to have an important role in the process of myocarditis. The purpose of this review is to summarize the existing understanding of the immunological mechanisms underlying myocarditis and exploring gaps in knowledge in both animal and human studies, since these mechanistic insights are a critical requirement for the development of novel therapeutic and vaccination strategies.

The advent of three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) has significantly improved the impact of non-invasive imaging on our understanding and management of cardiac diseases in clinical practice. Transthoracic 3DE enables an easier, more accurate and reproducible interpretation of the complex cardiac anatomy, overcoming the intrinsic limitations of conventional echocardiography. The availability of unprecedented views of cardiac structures from any perspective in the beating heart provides valuable clinical information and new levels of confidence in diagnosing heart disease. One major advantage of the third dimension is the improvement in the accuracy and reproducibility of chamber volume measurement by eliminating geometric assumptions and errors caused by foreshortened views. Another benefit of 3DE is the realistic en face views of heart valves, enabling a better appreciation of the severity and mechanisms of valve diseases in a unique, noninvasive manner. The purpose of this review is to provide readers with an update on the current clinical applications of transthoracic 3DE, emphasizing the incremental benefits of 3DE over conventional two-dimensional echocardiography.
Aortic Valve ; Echocardiography ; Echocardiography, Three-Dimensional ; Heart ; Heart Atria ; Heart Diseases ; Heart Valves ; Heart Ventricles ; Imidazoles ; Mitral Valve ; Nitro Compounds ; Tricuspid Valve

The advent of three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) has significantly improved the impact of non-invasive imaging on our understanding and management of cardiac diseases in clinical practice. Transthoracic 3DE enables an easier, more accurate and reproducible interpretation of the complex cardiac anatomy, overcoming the intrinsic limitations of conventional echocardiography. The availability of unprecedented views of cardiac structures from any perspective in the beating heart provides valuable clinical information and new levels of confidence in diagnosing heart disease. One major advantage of the third dimension is the improvement in the accuracy and reproducibility of chamber volume measurement by eliminating geometric assumptions and errors caused by foreshortened views. Another benefit of 3DE is the realistic en face views of heart valves, enabling a better appreciation of the severity and mechanisms of valve diseases in a unique, noninvasive manner. The purpose of this review is to provide readers with an update on the current clinical applications of transthoracic 3DE, emphasizing the incremental benefits of 3DE over conventional two-dimensional echocardiography.
Aortic Valve ; Echocardiography ; Echocardiography, Three-Dimensional ; Heart ; Heart Atria ; Heart Diseases ; Heart Valves ; Heart Ventricles ; Imidazoles ; Mitral Valve ; Nitro Compounds ; Tricuspid Valve