This article systematically reviews the characteristics and trends of the writing, editing, publication and promotion of physiology textbooks in China from the late 19th century to the present, focusing on the introduction, development and innovation of Chinese physiology textbooks. The development of physiology textbooks in China is divided into four main stages: the introduction and initial development of physiology textbooks from the late 19th century to 1925; the localization and diversification of textbooks from 1926 to 1949, after the establishment of the Chinese Physiological Society; the exploratory phase of textbook construction after the founding of the People's Republic of China from 1949 to 1976; the formation and innovation of the textbook development process from 1977 to the present, following the restoration of the college entrance examination. For each phase, the article not only records the historical development of physiology textbooks, but also analyzes the evolution of their content, writing styles and the interaction with the social and political contexts. The article summarizes the characteristics and experiences of all these four phases. Special attention is given to the comprehensive statistical analysis of physiology textbooks published since the restoration of the college entrance examination and Economic Reform and Opening-up in 1977, revealing the changes in the number, publication trends and academic features of textbooks during this period. Finally, the article presets the future development of physiology textbooks in China, proposing that textbook writing should integrate aspects such as ideological and political education, medical humanities, basic and clinical medicine, health education, scientific research and international exchange and collaboration. The article also advocates for the application of new technologies and methods, such as artificial intelligence, virtual teaching models and knowledge graphs, to support "personalized learning". This research provides a systematic reference for the study of the history of medical education and offers theoretical support for the future innovation of physiology textbook in China.
Humans ; China ; History, 19th Century ; History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; Physiology/education* ; Textbooks as Topic/history*

Academies and Institutes/history* ; Animals ; Biostatistics/history* ; China ; Ecology/history* ; History, 20th Century ; Humans ; Insecta/physiology* ; Vertebrates/physiology* ; Zoology/history*

Biochemistry/history* ; China ; Exercise/physiology* ; History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; Humans ; Sports Medicine/history*

Chinese tongue diagnosis was initially developed to quickly and efficiently diagnose and prescribe medicine, while at the same time allowing the doctor to have minimal contact with the patient. At the time of its compiling, the spread of Yersinia pestis, often causing septicaemia and gangrene of the extremities, may have discouraged doctors to come in direct contact with their patients and take the pulse. However, in recent decades, modern developments in the field of traditional Chinese medicine, as well as the spread of antibiotics in conjunction with the advancements of microbiology, have overshadowed the original purpose of this methodology. Nevertheless, the fast approaching post-antibiotic era and the development of artificial intelligence may hold new applications for tongue diagnosis. This article focuses on the historical development of what is the world's earliest tongue diagnosis monograph, and discusses the directions that such knowledge may be used in future clinical research.
China ; Diagnosis, Differential ; History, Ancient ; Humans ; Medicine in Literature ; history ; Plague ; diagnosis ; history ; microbiology ; therapy ; Tongue ; chemistry ; Yersinia pestis ; physiology

John Michael Bedford ( Figure 1) studied at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge University (1952–1958), and gained his BA (1955) and MA (1958) in Natural Sciences, with postgraduate training in Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (Vet MB 1958). He had academic appointments as a Fellow at Bristol University (1958–1959), a scientist with MC Chang at the Worcester Foundation in Shrewsbury, MA, USA (1959–1961), and studied for a PhD in Physiology with Professor Amoroso at the University of London (1961–1965). During this time, he was also a lecturer at the Royal Veterinary College (1961–1966) and a teacher at the University of London (1965). He then returned to Worcester (1966–1967) and thereafter was an Assistant Professor of Anatomy at Columba University, New York (1967–1970), Associate Professor (1970–1972), and from 1972 to 2000, both Professor of Reproductive Biology and Professor of Cell Biology and Anatomy at Cornell University Medical College (now Weill Cornell Medical College). He became the Percy and Harold Uris Professor of Reproductive Biology (1981–2000) and Professor Emeritus of Reproductive Biology in Obstetrics and Gynecology (2000) at Cornell University. From 1986 to 1990, he was the Director of the in vitro fertilization laboratories at Cornell.
History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; Humans ; Male ; Reproductive Medicine/history* ; Spermatozoa/physiology* ; United Kingdom

Brain ; physiology ; History, 20th Century ; Humans ; Sleep ; physiology ; Sleep Medicine Specialty ; history ; Sleep, REM ; physiology

Endocrinology ; history ; History, 19th Century ; History, 20th Century ; Humans ; Nobel Prize ; Philately ; history ; Physiology ; history

Respirasome, a huge molecular machine that carries out cellular respiration, has gained growing attention since its discovery, because respiration is the most indispensable biological process in almost all living creatures. The concept of respirasome has renewed our understanding of the respiratory chain organization, and most recently, the structure of respirasome solved by Yang's group from Tsinghua University (Gu et al. Nature 237(7622):639-643, 2016) firstly presented the detailed interactions within this huge molecular machine, and provided important information for drug design and screening. However, the study of cellular respiration went through a long history. Here, we briefly showed the detoured history of respiratory chain investigation, and then described the amazing structure of respirasome.
Animals ; Electron Transport ; physiology ; Electron Transport Chain Complex Proteins ; chemistry ; history ; metabolism ; History, 20th Century ; History, 21st Century ; Humans ; Protein Structure, Quaternary ; Structure-Activity Relationship

Austria ; History, 20th Century ; Humans ; Nobel Prize ; Philately ; Physiology ; history ; Prisoners ; Sweden ; World War I

This study clarifies the causes of the repetitive occurrences of such phenomena as rinderpest, epidemic, famine, and tiger disasters recorded in the Joseon Dynasty Chronicle and the Seungjeongwon Journals in the period of great catastrophe, the late 17th century in which the great Gyeongsin famine (1670~1671) and the great Eulbyeong famine (1695~1696) occurred, from the perspective that they were biological exchanges caused by the new arrival of rinderpest in the early 17th century. It is an objection to the achievements by existing studies which suggest that the great catastrophes occurring in the late 17th century are evidence of phenomena in a little ice age. First of all, rinderpest has had influence on East Asia as it had been spread from certain areas in Machuria in May 1636 through Joseon, where it raged throughout the nation, and then to the west part of Japan. The new arrival of rinderpest was indigenized in Joseon, where it was localized and spread periodically while it was adjusted to changes in the population of cattle with immunity in accordance with their life spans and reproduction rates. As the new rinderpest, which showed high pathogenicity in the early 17th century, was indigenized with its high mortality and continued until the late 17th century, it broke out periodically in general. Contrastively, epidemics like smallpox and measles that were indigenized as routine ones had occurred constantly from far past times. As a result, the rinderpest, which tried a new indigenization, and the human epidemics, which had been already indigenized long ago, were unexpectedly overlapped in their breakout, and hence great changes were noticed in the aspects of the human casualty due to epidemics. The outbreak of rinderpest resulted in famine due to lack of farming cattle, and the famine caused epidemics among people. The casualty of the human population due to the epidemics in turn led to negligence of farming cattle, which constituted factors that triggered rage and epidemics of rinderpest. The more the number of sources of infection and hosts with low immunity increased, the more lost human resources and farming cattle were lost, which led to a great famine. The periodic outbreak of the rinderpester along with the routine prevalence of various epidemics in the 17thcentury also had influenced on domestic and wild animals. Due to these phenomenon, full-fledged famines occurred that were incomparable with earlier ones. The number of domestic animals that were neglected by people who, faced with famines, were not able to take care of them was increased, and this might have brought about the rage of epidemics like rinderpest in domestic animals like cattle. The great Gyeongsin and Eulbyeong famines due to reoccurrence of the rinderpest in the late 17th century linked rinderpester, epidemics and great famines so that they interacted with each other. Furthermore, the recurring cycle of epidemics-famines-rinderpest-great famines constituted a great cycle with synergy, which resulted in eco-economic-historical great catastrophes accompanied by large scale casualties. Therefore, the Gyeongsin and Eulbyeong famines occurring in the late 17th century can be treated as events caused by the repetition of various periodic disastrous factors generated in 1670~1671 and in 1695~1696 respectively, and particularly as phenomena caused by biological exchanges based on rinderpester., rather than as little ice age phenomena due to relatively long term temperature lowering.
Animals ; Cattle ; Communicable Diseases/epidemiology/etiology/*history ; Epidemics/*history ; History, 17th Century ; Korea/epidemiology ; Population Dynamics ; Rinderpest/epidemiology/*history/virology ; Starvation/epidemiology/etiology/*history ; Tigers/physiology