Vegetables are essential for human nutrition due to their low fat content and high levels of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber. However, studies have shown that vegetables are vulnerable to PTE contamination as a result of anthropogenic activities. This study determined the concentrations and health impacts associated with potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in specific vegetables (green beans, spinach, green pepper, carrots, and onions). A total of 90 vegetable samples were randomly selected and purchased from local markets and analyzed for potentially toxic elements (PTEs) (Cd, Fe, Cr, Pb, Cu, Zn, Co, and Ni) using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). The mean concentrations (mg·kg-1) of PTEs ranged from 0.006 - 0.021 for Cd, 2.27 - 12.32 for Fe, 0.05 - 0.150 for Cr, 0.087 - 0.254 for Pb, 0.035 - 0.062 for Cu, 2.65 - 15.61 for Zn, 0.010 - 0.050 for Co, and 0.012 - 0.058 for Ni. The abundance of PTEs was found to be in the following declining order: Zn >Fe >Cu >Cr >Ni >Co >Pb >Cd. The hazard index (HI) for both children and adults was <1, suggesting that there is no likely non-carcinogenic effect from consuming these vegetables. Similarly, the carcinogenic risk was below the acceptable value range of 1.0 × 10-6 - 1.0 × 10-4. Based on the results of this study, it is unlikely that the vegetables analyzed pose a health risk to consumers. However, monitoring and continuous stringent regulations of PTEs on foodstuff for public health protection.

Background: The commercially available Newcastle disease (ND) vaccines were developed based on Newcastle disease virus (NDV) isolates genetically divergent from field strains that can only prevent clinical disease, not shedding of virulent heterologous virus, highlighting the need to develop genotype-matched vaccines Objectives: This study examined the efficacy of the NDV genotype-matched vaccine, mIBS025 strain formulated in standard vaccine stabilizer, and in carboxymethyl sago starch-acid hydrogel (CMSS-AH) following vaccination via an eye drop (ED) and drinking water (DW). Methods: A challenge virus was prepared from a recent NDV isolated from ND vaccinated flock. Groups of specific-pathogen-free chickens were vaccinated with mIBS025 vaccine strain prepared in a standard vaccine stabilizer and CMSS-AH via ED and DW and then challenged with the UPM/NDV/IBS362/2016 strain. Results: Chickens vaccinated with CMSS-AH mIBS025 ED (group 2) developed the earliest and highest Hemagglutination Inhibition (HI) NDV antibody titer (8log 2 ) followed by standard mIBS025 ED (group 3) (7log 2 ) both conferred complete protection and drastically reduced virus shedding. By contrast, chickens vaccinated with standard mIBS025 DW (group 5) and CMSS-AH mIBS025 DW (group 4) developed low HI NDV antibody titers of 4log 2and 3log 2 , respectively, which correspondingly conferred only 50% and 60% protection and continuously shed the virulent virus via the oropharyngeal and cloacal routes until the end of the study at 14 dpc. Conclusions The efficacy of mIBS025 vaccines prepared in a standard vaccine stabilizer or CMSS-AH was affected by the vaccination routes. The groups vaccinated via ED had better protective immunity than those vaccinated via DW.