General anesthesia, pivotal for surgical procedures, requires precise depth monitoring to mitigate risks ranging from intraoperative awareness to postoperative cognitive impairments. Traditional assessment methods, relying on physiological indicators or behavioral responses, fall short of accurately capturing the nuanced states of unconsciousness. This study introduces a machine learning-based approach to decode anesthesia depth, leveraging EEG data across different anesthesia states induced by propofol and esketamine in rats. Our findings demonstrate the model's robust predictive accuracy, underscored by a novel intra-subject dataset partitioning and a 5-fold cross-validation method. The research diverges from conventional monitoring by utilizing anesthetic infusion rates as objective indicators of anesthesia states, highlighting distinct EEG patterns and enhancing prediction accuracy. Moreover, the model's ability to generalize across individuals suggests its potential for broad clinical application, distinguishing between anesthetic agents and their depths. Despite relying on rat EEG data, which poses questions about real-world applicability, our approach marks a significant advance in anesthesia monitoring.
Animals ; Machine Learning ; Electroencephalography/methods* ; Ketamine/administration & dosage* ; Rats ; Male ; Propofol/administration & dosage* ; Rats, Sprague-Dawley ; Anesthesia, General/methods* ; Brain/physiology* ; Intraoperative Neurophysiological Monitoring/methods*

Objective: To compare the efficacy and safety of the combination of Dexmedetomidine (Dex) and Ketamine (Ket) administered via the intranasal (IN) route on sedation of children aged 0 to 12 years old prior to elective surgery or procedural sedation as compared to Intranasal Dexmedetomidine. Methods: Relevant studies were identified after a literature search on electronic databases as PubMed, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar and Science Direct. Meta-analyses of mean differences were performed to examine differences in sedation onset and recovery times between IN Dex-Ket and IN Dex. Meta-analyses of proportions were performed to estimate the incidence of sedation success, satisfactory sedation at parental separation and mask induction, and incidence of adverse events. Review Manager 5.4.1 was used for statistical analysis. Results: Six articles (388 patients) were included. The overall incidence of sedation success was higher among children premedicated with IN Dex-Ket (RR = 1.05; 95%CI = 0.97,1.13; P = 0.27, I2 = 20%) however was not statistically significant. Children given IN Dex-Ket had faster sedation onset time (WMD = -7.17; 95%CI = -12.44, -1.89; P=0.008) with greater incidence of satisfactory sedation at mask induction (RR = 0.71; 95%CI = 0.53, 0.94; P = 0.02). There was no significant difference as to recovery time and incidence of adverse events among the groups. Conclusion Premedication with IN Dex-Ket is as safe as IN Dex but of better efficacy as evidenced by faster sedation onset time and smoother inhalational induction without increasing clinically relevant adverse events.
Dexmedetomidine ; Ketamine ; Premedication

Objective: To estimate the consumption level of four drugs in Beijing using wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Methods: The primary sludge from one large wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) was collected in Beijing from July 2020 to February 2021. The concentrations of codeine, methadone, ketamine and morphine in the sludge were detected through solid-phase extraction-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The consumption, prevalence and number of users of four drugs were estimated by using the WBE approach. Results: Among 416 sludge samples, codeine had the highest detection rate (82.93%, n=345) with a concentration [M (Q₁, Q₃)] of 0.40 (0.22-0.8) ng·g^-1, and morphine had the lowest detection rate (28.37%,n=118) with a concentration [M (Q₁, Q₃)] of 0.13 (0.09, 0.17) ng·g^-1. There was no significant difference in the consumption of the four drugs on working days and weekends (all P values>0.05). Drug consumption was significantly higher in winter than that in summer and autumn (all P values <0.05). The consumption [M (Q₁, Q₃)] of codeine, methadone, ketamine and morphine in winter was 24.9 (15.58, 38.6), 9.39 (4.57, 26.72), 9.84 (5.18, 19.45) and 5.67 (3.57, 13.77) μg·inhabitant^-1·day^-1, respectively. For these drugs, there was an upward trend in the average drug consumption during summer, autumn and winter (the Z values of the trend test were 3.23, 3.16, 2.19, and 3.32, respectively and all P values<0.05). The prevalence [M (Q₁, Q₃)] of codeine, methadone, ketamine and morphine were 0.0056% (0.003 4%, 0.009 2%), 0.0148% (0.009 6%, 0.026 7%),0.0333% (0.0210%, 0.0710%) and 0.0072% (0.003 8%, 0.011 7%), respectively. The estimated number of drug users [M (Q₁, Q₃)] was 918 (549, 1 511), 2 429 (1 578, 4 383), 5 451 (3 444, 11 642) and 1 173 (626, 1 925),respectively. Conclusion: Codeine, methadone, ketamine and morphine have been detected in the sludge of WWTPs in Beijing, and the consumption level of these drugs varies in different seasons.
Humans ; Beijing ; Wastewater-Based Epidemiological Monitoring ; Sewage/analysis* ; Wastewater ; Ketamine/analysis* ; Codeine/analysis* ; Methadone/analysis* ; Water Pollutants, Chemical/analysis*

INTRODUCTION: Although ketamine is one of the commonest medications used in procedural sedation of children, to our knowledge, there is currently no published report on predictors of respiratory adverse events during ketamine sedation in Asian children. We aimed to determine the incidence of and factors associated with respiratory adverse events in children undergoing procedural sedation with intramuscular (IM) ketamine in a paediatric emergency department (ED) in Singapore. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was conducted of all children who underwent procedural sedation with IM ketamine in the paediatric ED between 1 April 2013 and 31 October 2017. Demographics and epidemiological data, including any adverse events and interventions, were extracted electronically from the prospective paediatric sedation database. The site of procedure was determined through reviewing medical records. Descriptive statistics were used for incidence and baseline characteristics. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to determine significant predictors. RESULTS: Among 5,476 children, 102 (1.9%) developed respiratory adverse events. None required intubation or cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Only one required bag-valve-mask ventilation. The incidence rate was higher in children aged less than three years, at 3.6% compared to 1.0% in older children (odds ratio [OR] 3.524, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.354-5.276; p < 0.001). Higher initial ketamine dose (adjusted OR 2.061, 95% CI 1.371-3.100; p = 0.001) and the type of procedure (adjusted OR 0.190 (95% CI 0.038-0.953; p = 0.044) were significant independent predictors. CONCLUSION The overall incidence of respiratory adverse events was 1.9%. Age, initial dose of IM ketamine and type of procedure were significant predictors.
Child ; Conscious Sedation/methods* ; Emergency Service, Hospital ; Humans ; Incidence ; Ketamine/adverse effects* ; Prospective Studies ; Retrospective Studies

Currently, sedation anesthesia is increasingly used in many medical fields, from gastroscopy to medical imaging. The demand for sedation anesthesia is expected to increase gradually with increasing number of day surgeries and increased expectations from medical services. The demand for sedation anesthesia is considerably higher than the available pool of anesthesiologists; therefore, in a significant number of cases, sedation anesthesia is induced by non-anesthesiologists. However, there is no systematic provision of education or expertise for non-anesthesiologists in delivering sedation anesthesia. In cases of non-anesthesiologists inducing anesthesia, social controversy is often caused by medical accidents and substance abuse. In this review, I have briefly summarized what non-anesthesiologists should know about sedation anesthesia and have presented guidelines simplifying sedation anesthesia for non-anesthesia medical personnel.
Ambulatory Surgical Procedures ; Anesthesia ; Dexmedetomidine ; Diagnostic Imaging ; Education ; Etomidate ; Gastroscopy ; Hypnotics and Sedatives ; Ketamine ; Propofol ; Substance-Related Disorders

Ketamine has long been used as an anesthetic agent. However, ketamine use is associated with numerous side effects, including flashbacks, amnesia, delirium, and aggressive or violent behavior. Ketamine has also been abused as a cocktail with ecstasy, cocaine, and methamphetamine. Several studies have investigated therapeutic applications of ketamine, demonstrating its antidepressant and anxiolytic effects in both humans and rodents. We recently reported that neonatal maternal separation causes enhanced anxiety- and aggressive-like behaviors in adolescent. In the present study, we evaluated how acute and chronic ketamine administration affected the behavioral consequences of neonatal maternal separation in adolescent mice. Litters were separated from dams for 4 hours per day for 19 days beginning after weaning. Upon reaching adolescence (post-natal day 35–49), mice were acutely (single injection) or chronically (7 daily injections) treated with a sub-anesthetic dose (15 mg/kg) of ketamine. At least 1 h after administration of ketamine, mice were subjected to open-field, elevated-plus maze, and resident-intruder tests. We found that acute ketamine treatment reduced locomotor activity. In contrast, chronic ketamine treatment decreased anxiety, as evidenced by increased time spent on open arms in the elevated-plus maze, and remarkably reduced the number and duration of attacks. In conclusion, the present study suggests that ketamine has potential for the treatment of anxiety and aggressive or violent behaviors.
Adolescent* ; Aggression ; Amnesia ; Animals ; Anti-Anxiety Agents ; Anxiety ; Arm ; Cocaine ; Delirium ; Humans ; Ketamine* ; Methamphetamine ; Mice* ; Motor Activity ; Rodentia ; Weaning

BACKGROUND: This study was conducted to compare the effectiveness of low-dose ketamine versus ketorolac in pain control in patients with acute renal colic presenting to the emergency department (ED). METHODS: This is a double-blind randomized clinical trial. The initial pain severity was assessed using the numerical rating scale (NRS). Then, ketamine or ketorolac was administered intravenously at a dose of 0.6 mg/kg and 30 mg respectively. The pain severity and adverse drug reactions were recorded 5, 15, 30, 60, and 120 min thereafter. RESULTS: The data of 62 subjects in the ketamine group and 64 patients in the ketorolac group were analyzed. The mean age of the patients was 34.2 ± 9.9 and 37.9 ± 10.6 years in the ketamine and ketorolac group, respectively. There was no significant difference in the mean NRS scores at each time point, except for the 5 min, between the two groups. Despite a marked decrease in pain severity in the ketamine group from drug administration at the 5 min, a slight increase in pain was observed from the 5 min to the 15 min. The rate of adverse drug reactions, including dizziness (P = 0.001), agitation (P = 0.002), increased systolic blood pressure (> 140 mmHg), and diastolic blood pressure (> 90 mmHg) was higher in the ketamine group. CONCLUSIONS: Low dose ketamine is as effective as ketorolac in pain management in patients with renal colic presenting to the ED. However, it is associated with a higher rate of adverse drug reactions.
Acute Pain ; Blood Pressure ; Dihydroergotamine ; Dizziness ; Double-Blind Method ; Drug-Related Side Effects and Adverse Reactions ; Emergencies ; Emergency Service, Hospital ; Humans ; Ketamine ; Ketorolac ; Pain Management ; Renal Colic ; Urinary Calculi

BACKGROUND: The current evidence on the safe use of supraglottic airway for pediatric laparoscopic surgeries is limited. Although i-gel has been successfully used in adult laparoscopic surgeries, to our knowledge, no studies have compared it to the endotracheal tube (ETT) in pediatric laparoscopic surgeries. This study evaluated the effectiveness of i-gel over ETT with regards to the respiratory and hemodynamic parameters during pediatric laparoscopic surgeries. METHODS: A total of 60 pediatric patients undergoing elective laparoscopic surgeries were randomly allocated to either the i-gel or ETT groups. Anesthetics used included ketamine, sevoflurane, and rocuronium. The primary outcome measured was the peak airway pressure (PAP) and the secondary outcomes measured were leak fraction, end-tidal CO₂, respiratory rate, insertion time, heart rate, blood pressure and perioperative complications. RESULTS: The PAP during surgeries was higher in the ETT group than in the i-gel group. There were no statistically significant differences in the leak fraction, end-tidal CO₂, and respiratory rate. The i-gel group had a shorter insertion time compared with the ETT group. The changes in heart rate were comparable in both groups. However, systolic and diastolic pressures were higher in the ETT group following intubation, before and after the creation of pneumoperitoneum. The incidence of perioperative complications was similar in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: The i-gel provided adequate ventilation with lower PAP compared with ETT. In addition, it provided minimal hemodynamic changes compared with ETT. Therefore, the i-gel may provide a suitable alternative to ETT in pediatric laparoscopic surgeries.
Adult ; Anesthetics ; Blood Pressure ; Heart Rate ; Hemodynamics ; Humans ; Incidence ; Intubation ; Intubation, Intratracheal ; Ketamine ; Laparoscopy ; Pediatrics ; Pneumoperitoneum ; Respiratory Rate ; Ventilation

OBJECTIVE: Patients with chronic neuropathic pain (CNP) have a higher incidence to develop depression. However, its pathogenesis has not yet been fully elucidated. Here we aimed to investigate the role of inflammatory cytokines in CNP-related anhedonia, which is a core symptom of depression, and to explore the effects of ketamine and parecoxib on pain and anhedonia. METHODS: A rat model of spared nerve injury (SNI) was constructed to mimic CNP. Hierarchical cluster analysis of sucrose preference test (SPT) was applied to classify the SNI rats into anhedonia susceptible and unsusceptible. Inflammatory cytokines in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of brain, serum and L2–5 spinal cord were measured. Moreover, effects of ketamine or parecoxib on mechanical withdrawal test (MWT) and SPT in anhedonia susceptible rats were detected. RESULTS: Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α was increased in mPFC, serum and and spinal cord of anhedonia susceptible rats. Furthermore, anhedonia susceptible and unsusceptible rats both increased the interleukin (IL)-1β level in mPFC, serum and spinal cord. IL-6 was altered in serum and spinal cord, but not in mPFC. IL-10 was significantly altered in mPFC and serum, but not in spinal cord. Additionally, ketamine treatment significantly attenuated the decreased results of MWT and SPT in anhedonia susceptible rats, and that parecoxib significantly improved the MWT score, but failed to alter the result of SPT. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that abnormalities in inflammatory cytokines confer susceptible to anhedonia in a rat model of SNI. Ketamine, a fast-acting antidepressant, has pharmacological benefits to alleviate pain and anhedonia symptoms.
Anhedonia ; Animals ; Brain ; Cytokines ; Depression ; Humans ; Incidence ; Interleukin-10 ; Interleukin-6 ; Interleukins ; Ketamine ; Models, Animal ; Neuralgia ; Neurogenic Inflammation ; Prefrontal Cortex ; Rats ; Spinal Cord ; Sucrose ; Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha

Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is rare, characterized by pain from diverse causes, and presents as extreme pain even with minor irritation. General anesthesia may be required for dental treatment because the pain may not be controlled with local anesthesia. However, treatment under general anesthesia is also challenging. A 38-year-old woman with CRPS arrived for outpatient dental treatment under general anesthesia. At the fourth general anesthesia induction, she experienced severe pain resulting from her right toe touching the dental chair. Anesthesia was induced to calm her and continue the treatment. After 55 minutes of general anesthesia, the patient still complained of extreme toe pain. Subsequently, two administrations for intravenous sedation were performed, and discharge was possible in the recovery room approximately 5 h after the pain onset. The pain was not located at the dental treatment site. Although the major factor causing pain relief was unknown, ketamine may have played a role.
Adult ; Anesthesia ; Anesthesia, General ; Anesthesia, Local ; Complex Regional Pain Syndromes ; Dental Care ; Female ; Humans ; Ketamine ; Outpatients ; Pain Management ; Recovery Room ; Toes