Background: The taxonomic status of house mice (Mus musculus) on the Korean Peninsula has long been debated due to conflicting morphological classifications and limited genetic evidence. Historically, three subspecies (M. m.molossinus, M. m. utsuryonis, and M. m. yamashinai) have been proposed based on external traits, although the validity of these proposals remains uncertain. Thus, this study aimed to integrate genetic and morphological analyses to clarify the phylogenetic relationships of Korean mice relative to the well-known primary M. musculus subspecies and evaluate the taxonomic distinctiveness. Results: Genetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA (cytb gene) from mice across Korea, including islands, mountains, and agricultural fields, confirmed that these mice belong to the Eurasian M. m. musculus lineage. Morphologically, Korean mice exhibited tail ratios consistent with previously assigned subspecies, suggesting these traits represent intraspecific variation within M. m. musculus. Craniometric analyses revealed distinctive features, such as a shorter, narrower premaxillary tooth-patch width and a longer maxillary tooth-row length, thereby distinguishing these mice from laboratory strains derived from M. m. domesticus. These cranial configurations, visualized via three-dimensional micro-computed tomography scans, further supported the morphological divergence of these mice from other subspecies. Conclusions Our findings indicate that Korean house mice belong to a single subspecific group within M. m.musculus, with observed morphological variations reflecting local adaptation rather than distinct taxonomic divisions.The Korean Peninsula likely served as an ecological bridge, facilitating the spatiotemporal diversification of M. m.musculus across East Eurasia. This study resolves longstanding taxonomic ambiguities and underscores the subspecific status of Korean house mice within M. m. musculus. These insights provide a foundation for understanding the biogeographic history of human commensal species and future biomedical research utilizing wild-derived mouse models.

BACKGROUND: Diet pattern of regular and three meals per day is commonly recommended. Studies investigated the health effect of gorging pattern of diet using meal frequency and meal skipping, but the health effect of meal calorie variation between three regular meals has never been investigated. In this study, maximum meal calorie variation was defined as subtraction calorie for a meal with minimum energy intake from calories for a meal with maximum energy intake between three meals and examined the effect of maximum meal calorie variation between three regular meals a day on cardiovascular risk factors. METHODS: A total of 4,680 healthy subjects aged 20-87 years who underwent medical screening examination, at one tertiary hospital health screening center and completed 24-hour dietary recall was included. Serum cholesterol subfractions, fasting glucose and blood pressure were measured. RESULTS: Maximum meal calorie variation was significantly related to serum concentration of total cholesterol (beta = 1.77; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.36 to 3.18) and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) (beta = 1.64; 95% CI, 0.37 to 2.91), body mass index (beta = 0.24; 95% CI, 0.12 to 0.37) and waist circumference (beta = 0.66; 95% CI, 0.34 to 0.98) after adjustment for potential confounders. CONCLUSION: This study suggests the notion that concentration of total cholesterol and LDL-C and obesity indices are related to maximum meal calorie variation between three meals, independently of energy intake and other confounding factors in free-living population.
Aged ; Blood Pressure ; Body Mass Index ; Cholesterol ; Diet ; Energy Intake ; Fasting ; Glucose ; Humans ; Mass Screening ; Meals ; Obesity ; Risk Factors ; Tertiary Care Centers ; Waist Circumference