INTRODUCTION

The social determinants of health refer to an individual's social, political, and economic situation and environment, which can have an impact on their health. On the other hand, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) reflect the mortalities and morbidities incurred due to disease and injury.

This study aims to analyze the social determinants of health indicators and their association with communicable, non-communicable, and injury-related DALYs and deaths.

Data from World Health Organization, World Bank, and International Labor Organization were used and considered for the 17 Social Determinants of Health categories. Logistic regression was used to determine the relationship of social determinants of health indicators with communicable, non-communicable, and injury-related DALYs and deaths.

Results show that an increase in the population, monetary poverty, adult illiteracy, and fine particulate matter increase IPNN DALYs. This study also found correlations of socioeconomic factors to NCD deaths and DALYs attributable to the environment. NCD DALYs and deaths are found to increase with the number of poor living with 3.10 dollars a day, while median daily per capita income, and increase in persons above retiring age receiving pension decrease NCD DALYs attributable to the environment. Focusing on injury DALYs and deaths, an increase in the number of poor living at 3.10 dollars a day, non-agricultural informal employment, and total average concentration of f ine particulate matter increases injury DALYs while the latter is observed to decrease when there is an increase in the medial daily per capita income, agricultural employment outside the formal sector, and vulnerable persons covered by social assistance.

Socio-economic factors such as income, employment, education, and social welfare program affect morbidity, disability, and mortality.

INTRODUCTION

The social determinants of health refer to an individual's social, political, and economic situation and environment, which can have an impact on their health. On the other hand, disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) reflect the mortalities and morbidities incurred due to disease and injury.

This study aims to analyze the social determinants of health indicators and their association with communicable, non-communicable, and injury-related DALYs and deaths.

Data from World Health Organization, World Bank, and International Labor Organization were used and considered for the 17 Social Determinants of Health categories. Logistic regression was used to determine the relationship of social determinants of health indicators with communicable, non-communicable, and injury-related DALYs and deaths.

Results show that an increase in the population, monetary poverty, adult illiteracy, and fine particulate matter increase IPNN DALYs. This study also found correlations of socioeconomic factors to NCD deaths and DALYs attributable to the environment. NCD DALYs and deaths are found to increase with the number of poor living with 3.10 dollars a day, while median daily per capita income, and increase in persons above retiring age receiving pension decrease NCD DALYs attributable to the environment. Focusing on injury DALYs and deaths, an increase in the number of poor living at 3.10 dollars a day, non-agricultural informal employment, and total average concentration of f ine particulate matter increases injury DALYs while the latter is observed to decrease when there is an increase in the medial daily per capita income, agricultural employment outside the formal sector, and vulnerable persons covered by social assistance.

Socio-economic factors such as income, employment, education, and social welfare program affect morbidity, disability, and mortality.

BACKGROUND

Social determinants of health are wider set of forces and systems that greatly influence an individual’s health outcomes.

This study aims to determine the socio-economic indicators that influence certain health indicators focusing on maternal and children under-5 health.

Selected data from from the World Health Organization (WHO), World Bank, and International Labor Organization (ILO) were primarily used to model health outcomes such as mortality rates, disability-adjusted life years, and deaths and injuries due to occupational injuries. A total of 194 countries were considered as respondents in this study. Linear hierarchical multiple regression was used to determine the relationship of social determinants of health on life expectancy at birth, maternal mortality ratio (per 100,000 live births), under-5 years mortality ratio, prevalence of overweight in children under-5 years, and death rate (per 100,000 population).

Data from 194 countries shows that the global average life expectancy is 55.7 years. The global average maternal mortality ratio is 1119.509 per 100,000 live births, and maternal mortality is significantly increased by factors such as increase in total vulnerable employment, total unemployment, and CPIA gender equality rating. Focusing on children’s health outcomes, the global average under-5 mortality rate was 102.247 per 100,000 live births. Mortality rate for children under-5 increases with total vulnerable employment and total unemployment, while adult literacy rate, 1 medical doctor per 10,000 population, and food safety level decreases under-5 mortality rates. The global overweight prevalence in children under-5 is 10.389%. The increase in average monthly earnings of employees working in service and sales increases its prevalence. For death rate, the global average is 682.818 per 100,000 population. This is further positively affected by an increase in rural population and total unemployment. On the other hand, adult literacy rate decreases death rate.

Socio-economic factors such as income, education, employment, and government support influence maternal and children under-5 health indicators. Thus, programs, projects, and activities that aim to positively affect the health of the public should be holistic and should also focus on positively altering the health behavior of the public.

INTRODUCTION: The delivery sector has experienced a remarkable expansion in recent years, owing mainly to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, numerous elements, like practices, regulations, and health and safety conditions, impact their efficiency. Similarly, the issues and complaints of delivery services, notably its on-the-ground workers/riders, have grown. OBJECTIVE: This research aims to describe delivery riders' work-related health and safety conditions in the Philippines. METHOD: An online survey was conducted for delivery riders to inquire about working conditions, and health and safety issues. Eighty survey respondents were included via snowball sampling. The survey focused on seven variables: precautions at work, health risks due to work, accident involvement, bad driving practices, road conditions, potential dangers for riders, and employer regulations and support. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. RESULTS: Most riders are low-income married men who have finished at least high school and work more than eight hours a day, six days a week. Most of them also work for food delivery businesses during the day. The findings show a general adherence to traffic and safety laws, a propensity to push oneself to work despite poor conditions, and a lack of company support for riders' health, safety, and other requirements. The regular delivery rider's everyday difficulties include dirt roads, a lack of traffic signals, the presence of wandering animals and irresponsible pedestrians, and an insistence on showing up to work despite weather or health concerns. Furthermore, responders have high esteem for and thoroughly grasp local traffic laws. CONCLUSION Although the riders are generally perceived to comply with safety standards, their employers’ rules and support indicate that delivery firms are deficient in providing adequate safety and health measures for their workers. There is low importance on strategies to prevent transmission and contraction of COVID-19, such as vaccinations, testing, face masks, face shields, and sanitizers, among others.

Introduction: Small-scale mining (SSM) has been in the Philippines since the early 1900s and significant contributor to the local economy. SSM has contributed 14% of the country's total Gross Domestic Product and has a revenue share of about 19 billion pesos (380 million USD). Objectives: This study aims to document mining occupational safety and health in SSM in the Philippines and identify best practices among miners and communities to reduce toxic chemical use in mining. It also aims to evolve laws and legislative measures on mining in the country as the basis for more aggressive policies and programs for SSM in the Philippines. Methods: The data were based on gray literature, peer-reviewed journals, databases, government statistics, and secondary literature. Data were analyzed through critical appraisal on the impacts of mining in terms of occupational safety, mining issues, hazards, and disasters, environmental and health impact, as well as documentation of best practices in mining to reduce the use of toxic chemicals, and the current laws and legislations on mining in the Philippines. Results: SSM or artisanal mining is categorized as part of the informal sector of the market economy. In the Philippines, the leading types of accidents in the mines are being hit by falling objects, suffocation from chemical fumes, and crushing injuries, exposure to intense heat, poor ventilation, vibration, dust, fumes, repetitive stress injury, intense noise, manual handling (e.g., lifting) of heavy machinery, and biological and chemical hazard. Occupational illnesses include skin diseases, emphysema, chronic obstructive lung disease, and hearing loss. Due to these risks, the Philippines has adopted mercury-free mining, cyanide reduction, and green and climate-smart mining. The use of borax in recovering gold from ore instead of mercury originated in the Philippines, which is now widely known as the mercury-free gravity-borax method adopted in Africa and Asia. The Philippines also has a plethora of laws covering mining as a whole. Developmental directives include enacting specific SSM laws and regulations, including a separate set of safety rules, and decentralizing the issue and control of SSM permits and licenses through local government units. Some noted legislative measures, Presidential Decrees, and Administrative Orders have been crafted to cover the safety net, equity, safety, and health for small-scale miners, among the most vulnerable working populations. Discussion: Hazards and risks have been documented in SSM in the Philippines. However, the policies, legislation, and protective measures on SSM warrant more comprehensive coverage, implementation, and provision of social safety nets. Conclusion The study concludes that mining in the Philippines continues to be a problem as it produces adverse effects on workers' health, the community, and the environment. It is crucial to ensure the health and safety of mining workers, and all players and stakeholders must fulfill their respective roles. Governments and communities need to perform their regulatory and monitoring functions dutifully to build up their capacities to benefit mining communities that contribute much to the local economy.
Occupational Injuries ; Mining

Introduction: Pesticides are widely used in the agricultural sector to increase production by cutting down costs and improving the quality of produce. However, these chemicals come with serious health effects when an individual is exposed to large quantities at once, or low quantities over time. Objectives: The objective of the study is to investigate the knowledge, attitude, and practices of farmers, as well as investigate the correlation among knowledge, attitude, and practice variables. Methods: This research study used a cross-sectional design. Samples were drawn based on a multistage sampling of 387 agricultural workers. The target site was in Southern Philippines and the sample was selected using multi-stage sampling from the identified municipalities. Survey questionnaires were given to the respondents to measure knowledge, attitude, and practices (KAP) on pesticide exposure among farmers. The data were encoded using SPSS 13.0. The statistics used were both descriptive and inferential. Correlation analysis was used to study the relationship among knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Results: The results showed that farmers used pesticides in their farms on an average of 2.31 days per week (SD 2.13). The respondents reported that they were exposed to pesticides for about 3.46 months per cropping season (SD: 2.76), as well as from 3.34 (SD 5.92) cropping seasons per year. The mean score of the respondents on the knowledge aspect of the questionnaire was 5.91 out of 10 items (SD 3.28). The average score on practices on pesticide use among respondents was 3.37 (SD 1.75) with 8 items to evaluate practices. Lastly, the mean score on attitude on pesticide use among respondents was 5.34 (SD 3.31) over 12 items. Analysis showed a moderate correlation between knowledge and attitude with Pearson’s r = 0.651 (P <0.0001), also a moderate correlation between knowledge and practices at r = 0.521 (P <0.0001), and a moderate correlation between practices and attitudes at r = 0.443 (P <0.0001). Factor analysis revealed three components for items within practices and attitudes and two for items within knowledge. Conclusion Pesticide use in the Philippines continues to present various challenges in terms of its safety to humans and the environment. Farmers do not have adequate knowledge of pesticides and their proper management from use to disposal. They need to improve knowledge, encourage a healthy and safe attitude and correct practices on the hazards from pesticides, as well as its proper usage and handling. It is recommended that capacity building and training for farmers are initiated to address inadequacies in their knowledge, attitudes and practices.
Knowledge ; Attitude ; Farmers

Introduction: Companies and hospitals in the healthcare industry, like other businesses, are not exempted from the rising labor costs and growing dissatisfaction among employees. The assessment and optimization of total rewards management (TRM) are important since TRM consists of monetary and non-monetary rewards given to employees in exchange for their time, talents, and efforts. Objective: This study assessed the TRM in Philippine healthcare companies. This study also looked into the organizational structure of various health-service companies and their TRM, and the difference between companies with TRM and without TRM in terms of pay, benefits, work-life balance, career development, and performance recognition. Method: A total of 74 human resource personnel were randomly sampled from healthcare companies in the Philippines. A survey questionnaire was administered with items on TRM philosophy divided into five parts – pay, benefits, work-life balance, career development, and performance recognition. High mean scores per TRM component correspond to higher levels of agreement to positive statements to the corresponding TRM component. Chi-square test was used to determine the association between various demographic variables and the existence of a TRM philosophy in a company. T-test was used to determine whether the differences in the mean scores per TRM component were statistically significant or not. Results: Less than half (44%) of the included companies have TRM and companies in Metro Manila were more likely to have an existing TRM philosophy. Companies in the healthcare sector usually disseminate information on TRM during town hall meetings, and not during onboarding. Employees in the healthcare companies had strict work schedules as most employers did not allow flexi-time arrangements. This may have contributed to burnout and stress that are common in most companies. Lastly, employees working in companies with a TRM philosophy do not experience significantly better pay, benefits, work-life balance, career development, and performance recognition than those working in companies without TRM. Conclusion These findings suggest that even companies with an established TRM philosophy need significant improvement in their TRM processes for TRM to translate to better pay, benefits, work-life balance, career development, and performance recognition.
Work-Life Balance

Introduction: In the Philippines, industries began to recognize the importance of workers’ health after occupational safety and health were introduced in the early 1900s. Ever since, several legal bases have existed to protect the people’s welfare. However, data regarding this matter is limited in the country. Objective: This paper aimed to develop a comprehensive review of occupational safety and health data, including hazard exposures and occupational diseases for various Filipino occupational groups. Methods: A comprehensive analysis of the latest records and statistics from various government agencies, non-government organizations, academe, and research institutions was done. Data analysis was completed through a critical appraisal of the Philippines' current occupational health and safety regarding occupational diseases, injuries, accidents, and existing occupational health and safety policies. Data were also extracted from reviews of literature and other related research studies. Data analysis was done through a critical appraisal of the Philippines' current occupational health and safety in terms of occupational diseases, injuries, accidents, and existing occupational health and safety policies. Results: Most of those working in the informal sectors do not have enough social protection in the Philippine context. Others in the same situation involve construction workers, farmers, miners, and waste or garbage pickers. Child labor was also seen to be prevalent, risking these children's health and safety. Another issue is on gender, and wherein women were found to have lesser protection than their counterparts. Among the industries present in the country, administrative and support service activities, manufacturing, wholesale and retail trade, financial and insurance activities, education except for public education, and agriculture, forestry, and fishing were seen to have a high prevalence of occupational diseases. The study has shown occupational safety and health among various occupational groups and categories, the profile of occupational diseases in Philippine industries, and the OSH programs implemented in industries. Conclusion Analysis of available data confirmed the presence of threats of unsafe and unhealthy conditions in various jobs and workplaces. To keep up with other nations, the country should strive more with its local developments.
Occupational Diseases ; Occupational Injuries

Introduction: Small-scale mining (SSM) is mining by individuals, groups, families, or cooperatives with minimal or no mechanization, often in the market's informal (illegal) sector. According to the Mines and Geosciences Bureau (MGB) in the Philippines, the gross production value of small-scale mining as of the 1st to 3rd quarter of 2020 was 0.5 billion pesos (1.05 billion USD). Objectives: This study investigated the work process in small-scale mining in the northern part of the Philippines. It documented the occupational hazards that small-scale gold miners are exposed to in each of the work processes. Methods: The target population is a community in the northern Philippines where the majority of the males are engaged in small-scale gold mining. This qualitative study used work observation and hazards analysis tools to investigate small-scale miners' work processes and hazard exposures. Results: The most widely employed mining technique in the target community is dog-hole mining consisting of several sub-processes: tunneling, ball milling, and gravity concentration, cyanide leaching, and smelting. The occupational hazards identified were noise exposure from the dynamite blast, temperature extremes, and exposure to dust from dynamite blasting. The small-scale miners were subjected to prolonged crouching and bending, handling tools, and carrying heavy sacks filled with mineral ores. The miners resorted to improvised protective equipment such as wearing sleeveless shirts and drinking water for temperature extremes, distancing themselves from the mining blasts during dynamite blasting, and intermittently used carts with manual handling to transport ores packed in sacks. In the ball milling and gravity concentration process, machine-related accidents such as cuts from the crusher were observed. In cyanide leaching, which uses massive amounts of cyanide, the most prevalent hazards were heat, dust, and chemicals such as cyanide fumes. The risks included smoke from burning ore and coal and exposure to borax and nitric acid fumes in the smelting process. Conclusion This study documented the work process in small-scale gold mining and the hazard exposures in this type of informal industry. It is suggested that the local and national governments implement intervention programs for occupational health and safety measures, and social security nets are provided for the small-scale miners in Itogon, Benguet.
Cyanides ; Occupational Health

Introduction: The Lancet Countdown used Global Burden of Disease (GBD) data to track mortality from diseases influenced by climate change. The Philippines is one of the most vulnerable nations to climate change. Objective: This study aimed to provide summative data on climate change and health-environmental factors based on several large databases. It looked into the correlation of climate change to selected health variables and correlated environmental factors to health chosen variables in the Philippines. Methods: The database was assembled through a compilation of different secondary data. Climate change variables were acquired from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD 2017) Study on Health-related Sustainable Development Goals Indicators from 1990 to 2030. The data for the Philippines were obtained. These indicators include air pollution mortality, disaster mortality, household air pollution, malaria incidence, mean PM2.5, non-communicable disease mortality, neglected tropical diseases mortality, unimproved sanitation, and unsafe water. The resulting database was analyzed using exploratory data analysis techniques with descriptive statistics and line graphs to analyze trends over the years. Then Pearson correlation analysis was done to explore the linear relationship between health indicators, climate indicators, and environmental indicators. Results: The study results showed that the trend in the Philippines for air pollution mortality, household air pollution, malaria incidence, and neglected tropical diseases mortality is in a downward direction. However, non-communicable disease mortality was constantly increasing from 41.99 in 1990 to 55.00 in 2016. Meanwhile, the mean temperature is significantly negatively correlated to household air pollution, malaria incidence, and neglected tropical diseases and significantly correlated with non-communicable diseases. Also, NOAA adjusted sea level is significantly positively correlated with air pollution mortality, malaria incidence, disaster mortality, and non-communicable diseases. It is negatively correlated with malaria incidence and neglected tropical diseases prevalence. Global mean CO2 is significantly negatively correlated with household air pollution, malaria incidence, and neglected tropical diseases prevalence. On the other hand, it was significantly and positively correlated with air pollution mortality and non-communicable diseases mortality. Household air pollution health risk was significantly positively correlated to mean PM2.5 levels in the Philippines. Unimproved sanitation was positively correlated with household air pollution, malaria incidence, and neglected tropical disease prevalence. Conclusion As recordings of heat index increased, there was a correlation with NCD, Malaria, Disaster, and NTD infection mortality. With the evidence of the correlation of increasing temperature and pollution to health, the urgency to focus on addressing these problems was present in this study. Further research may help in policymaking to target drivers of pollution which affect extreme climate changes.
Climate Change ; Air Pollution