OBJECTIVE: Antiretroviral drugs covered by medical insurance have been gradually used by people living with human immunodeficiency virus (PLWH) in recent years in China. This study aimed to analyze their willingness to pay (WTP) for antiretroviral drugs. METHODS: A mixed-methods study design involving a cross-sectional survey and in-depth interviews was conducted. A cross-sectional survey was performed to collect data on the general characteristics, economic status, antiretroviral therapy (ART) status, and WTP of PLWH in 18 Chinese cities from August 2022 to February 2023. Multivariate logistic regression was used to analyze the factors associated with WTP. Representatives of PLWH were interviewed via in-depth interviews, and the data were thematically analyzed. RESULTS: Among the 941 PLWH, 271 (28.80%) were willing to pay for antiretroviral drugs covered by medical insurance. For basic medical insurance for urban and rural residents, PLWH with the following characteristics were more willing to pay: an educational level of senior high school or technical secondary school, having an undergraduate degree or higher, frequently working away from their hometowns, and homosexual transmission. Off-farm workers and recipients of government medical aid were more unwilling to pay. For basic medical insurance for urban employees, PLWH with the following characteristics were more willing to pay: frequently working away from their hometowns; homosexual transmission; personal annual income ≥ 100,000 CNY; and adverse events of antiretroviral drugs. The main reasons for PLWH's WTP for antiretroviral drugs covered by medical insurance were that the drugs had fewer adverse events and were easier to administer. The main reasons for PLWH's unwillingness to pay were financial difficulties and privacy concerns. CONCLUSION Nearly one-third of PLWH are willing to pay for antiretroviral drugs covered by medical insurance. In the future, PLWH with a high WTP can be guided to use these drugs.
Humans ; HIV Infections/economics* ; China ; Male ; Female ; Adult ; Cross-Sectional Studies ; Middle Aged ; Anti-Retroviral Agents/economics* ; Cities ; Insurance, Health/economics* ; Young Adult

fertilization and embryo transplantation (IVF-ET) technology is one of the main treatments for infertility. But IVF-ET is expensive and has not be covered by health insurance in most developing countries. Therefore, how to obtain the maximum success rate with the minimum cost is a common concern of clinicians and patients. At present, the economic studies on IVF-ET mainly focus on different ovulation stimulating drugs, different ovulation stimulating protocols, different transplantation methods and the number of transplants. But the process of IVF-ET is complex, the relevant methods of economic study are diverse, and there are no unified standard for outcome indicators, so there is no unified conclusion for more economical and effective protocol by now. Therefore, to analyze the economic studies of IVF-ET, and to explore appropriate evaluation methods and cost-effective protocols will be helpful for reasonable allocation of medical resources and guidance of clinical selection. It would provide policy reference to include the costs of IVF-ET treatment in health insurance in the future.
Economics, Medical ; trends ; Embryo Transfer ; economics ; statistics & numerical data ; Female ; Fertilization in Vitro ; economics ; statistics & numerical data ; Humans ; Infertility ; economics ; Insurance, Health ; economics ; statistics & numerical data ; Ovulation Induction

To analyze the equity of outpatient service utilization for hypertensive patients (HPs) under 3 kinds of social medical insurance, and to explore its influential factors.
 Methods: A total of 8 670 HPs (aged at 15 years old from 28 sub-centers) in 14 provinces were selected. Indirectly standardized method and concentration index were used to analyze the equity of outpatient utilization in HPs, and decomposition analysis was used to explore the impact factors of outpatient treatment among the whole sample population, population with urban employees' basic medical insurance (UEBMI), and population with urban residents' basic medical insurance (URBMI) and new rural cooperative medical systems (NCMS).
 Results: The overall concentration index (CI) for the whole sample population was 0.2378. After the standardizing "need" variable, horizontal inequity (HI) was 0.2360, indicating that the outpatient service of HPs was inequity and that the higher economic level, the more outpatient services received. The decomposition of overall CI results showed that the positive factors for contribution were gross domestic product (GDP) level, retired, UEBMI and URBMI, and the negative factors for contribution were NCMS. The CI of UEBMI, URBMI and NCMS was 0.2017, 0.1208 and 0.0288, respectively; the HI was 0.1889, 0.1215 and 0.0219, respectively. The inequity in UEBMI is the most serious, followed by NRCMS and URBMI. The economic level was the main factor that caused inequity in the outpatient services utilization in three social medical insurance. In addition to the economic level, a common positive factor for the contribution to UEBMI and URBMI was district of residence, and the age was the positive factor to UEBMI as well.
 Conclusion: There are different levels of inequity in the HPs covered by 3 kinds of social medical insurance, and the inequity of UEBMI is the highest one among 3 kinds social medical insurance. The economic level is the main factor that affects the equity of outpatient in the HPs under 3 kinds of social medical insurance.
Adolescent ; Ambulatory Care ; economics ; statistics & numerical data ; China ; Healthcare Disparities ; economics ; statistics & numerical data ; Humans ; Hypertension ; therapy ; Insurance, Health ; economics ; statistics & numerical data ; Outpatients ; statistics & numerical data ; Rural Health Services ; economics ; statistics & numerical data ; Socioeconomic Factors ; Urban Health Services ; economics ; statistics & numerical data

BACKGROUNDChina has not established social security system for rare diseases. Rare diseases could easily impoverish patients and their families. Little research has studied the equity and accessibility of health services for patients with rare diseases in China. This study aimed to explore the factors that influence health expenditure of rare diseases and evaluate its equity.

METHODSQuestionnaire survey about living conditions and cost burden of patients with rare diseases was conducted. Individual and family information, health expenditure and reimbursement in 2014 of 982 patients were collected. The impact of medical insurance, individual sociodemographic characteristics, family characteristics, and healthcare need on total and out-of-pocket (OOP) health expenditures was analyzed through the generalized linear model. Equity of health expenditure was evaluated by both concentration index and Lorenz curve.

RESULTSOf all the surveyed patients, 11.41% had no medical insurance and 92.10% spent money to seek medical treatment in 2014. It was suggested female (P = 0.048), over 50 years of age (P = 0.062), high-income group (P = 0.021), hospitalization (P = 0.000), and reimbursement ratio (RR) (P = 0.000) were positively correlated with total health expenditure. Diseases not needing long-term treatment (P = 0.000) was negatively correlated with total health expenditure. Over 50 years of age (P = 0.065), high-income group (P = 0.018), hospitalization (P = 0.000) and having Urban Employee Basic Medical Insurance (UEBMI) (P = 0.022) were positively correlated with OOP health expenditure. Patient or the head of the household having received higher education (P = 0.044 and P = 0.081) and reimbursement ratio (P = 0.078) were negatively correlated with OOP health expenditure. The equity evaluation found concentration indexes of health expenditure before and after reimbursement were 0.0550 and 0.0539, respectively.

CONCLUSIONSOOP health expenditure of patients with UEBMI was significantly more than that of patients without medical insurance. However, for any other medical insurance, there was no difference between OOP health expenditure of the insured patients and patients without insurance. The current reimbursement policies have increased the equity of health expenditure, but are biased toward high-income people.

China ; Female ; Health Expenditures ; statistics & numerical data ; Humans ; Insurance, Health ; economics ; statistics & numerical data ; Male ; Rare Diseases ; economics ; Surveys and Questionnaires

BACKGROUNDThe New Rural Cooperative Medical Scheme (NCMS) has been further adjusted and optimized to reduce the financial burden of rural residents and to achieve universal coverage for them. In this study, we aimed to explore the impact of NCMS on medical service utilization and medical expense of inpatients in recent years.

METHODSThe research data of Hainan Province were extracted from the Chinese NCMS platform from 2012 to 2014. Detailed information included total expenditure, average inpatients costs, average out-of-pocket payments, actual reimbursement rate, and average annual growth rate of the above indicators. Descriptive analysis was used to gauge the effects of NCMS.

RESULTSIn the utilization of medical services, NCMS inpatients in tertiary hospital decreased from 25.49% in 2012 to 20.39% in 2014, inpatients in county hospitals increased from 39.49% to 55.92%, simultaneously. The total expenditure in county hospitals rose steadily from 28.46% to 46.66%, meanwhile, the total expenditure in tertiary hospitals fell from 60.44% to 44.51%.The average out-of-pocket costs of rural inpatients remained stable over the years. Furthermore, the compensation fund of NCMS inpatients grew significantly. The actual inpatient reimbursement rate at township health centers increased from 76.93% to 84.04%. Meanwhile, the rate at county hospitals and tertiary hospitals increased slightly from 59.37% and 46.10% to 61.25% and 47.71%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONSWith the improvement of the reimbursement ability, especially after the new health care reform in 2009, the NCMS have been playing a prominent role in alleviating the economic burden of farmers' medical treatment. Meanwhile, more patients go to primary hospitals than tertiary hospitals, and the capability of primary hospitals has been greatly improved.

China ; Female ; Health Expenditures ; statistics & numerical data ; Hospitalization ; statistics & numerical data ; Humans ; Inpatients ; statistics & numerical data ; Insurance, Health ; economics ; Male ; Rural Population

BACKGROUNDIn recent years, the prevalence of type 2 diabetes among Chinese population has been increasing by years, directly leading to an average annual growth rate of 19.90% of medical expenditure. Therefore, it is urgent to work on strategies to control the growth of medical expenditure on type 2 diabetes on the basis of the reality of China. Therefore, in this study, we explored the feasibility of implementing bundled payment in China through analyzing bundled payment standards of type 2 diabetes outpatient services.

METHODSThis study analyzed the outpatient expenditure on type 2 diabetes with Beijing Urban Employee's Basic Medical Insurance from 2010 to 2012. Based on the analysis of outpatient expenditure and its influential factors, we adopted decision tree approach to conduct a case-mix analysis. In the end, we built a case-mix model to calculate the standard expenditure and the upper limit of each combination.

RESULTSWe found that age, job status, and whether with complication were significant factors that influence outpatient expenditure for type 2 diabetes. Through the analysis of the decision tree, we used six variables (complication, age, diabetic foot, diabetic nephropathy, cardiac-cerebrovascular disease, and neuropathy) to group the cases, and obtained 11 case-mix groups.

CONCLUSIONSWe argued that it is feasible to implement bundled payment on type 2 diabetes outpatient services. Bundled payment is effective to control the increase of outpatient expenditure. Further improvements are needed for the implementation of bundled payment reimbursement standards, together with relevant policies and measures.

Aged ; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 ; economics ; Female ; Health Expenditures ; standards ; Humans ; Insurance, Health, Reimbursement ; Male ; Middle Aged ; Outpatients

BACKGROUND: While demand for cardiovascular surgery is expected to increase gradually along with the rapid increase in cardiovascular diseases with respect to the aging population, the supply of thoracic and cardiovascular surgeons has been continuously decreasing over the past 10 years. Consequently, this study aims to achieve guidance in establishing health care policy by analyzing the supply and demand for cardiovascular surgeries in the medical service area of Korea. METHODS: After investigating the actual number of cardiovascular surgeries performed using the National Health Insurance claim data of the Health Insurance Review and Assessment Service, as well as drawing from national statistics concerning the elderly population aged 65 and over, this study estimated the number of future cardiovascular surgeries by using a cell-based model. To be able to analyze the supply and demand of surgeons, the recent status of new surgeons specializing in thoracic and cardiovascular surgeries and the ratio of their subspecialties in cardiovascular surgeries were investigated. Then, while taking three different scenarios into account, the number of cardiovascular surgeons expected be working in 5-year periods was projected. RESULTS: The number of cardiovascular surgeries, which was recorded at 10,581 cases in 2014, is predicted to increase consistently to reach a demand of 15,501 cases in 2040—an increase of 46.5%. There was a total of 245 cardiovascular surgeons at work in 2014. Looking at 5 year spans in the future, the number of surgeons expected to be supplied in 2040 is 184, to retire is 249, and expected to be working is 309—an increase of −24.9%, 1.6%, and 26.1%, respectively compared to those in 2014. This forecasts a demand-supply imbalance in every scenario. CONCLUSION: Cardiovascular surgeons are the most central resource in the medical service of highly specialized cardiovascular surgeries, and fostering the surgeons requires much time, effort, and resources; therefore, by analyzing the various factors affecting the supply of cardiovascular surgeons, an active intervention of policies can be prescribed for the areas that have failed to meet the appropriate market distributions.
Aged ; Aging ; Cardiovascular Diseases ; Delivery of Health Care ; Economics, Medical ; Foster Home Care ; Health Policy ; Health Services Needs and Demand ; Humans ; Insurance, Health ; Korea ; National Health Programs ; Surgeons* ; Thoracic Surgery

OBJECTIVES: The purposes of this study were to examine the status of children and adolescents with regard to enrollment in private medical insurance (PMI) and to investigate its influence on their utilization of medical services. METHODS: The present study assessed 2973 subjects younger than 19 years of age who participated in five consecutive Korea Health Panel surveys from 2009 to 2012. RESULTS: At the initial assessment, less than 20% of the study population had not enrolled in any PMI program, but this proportion decreased over time. Additionally, the number of subjects with more than two policies increased, the proportions of holders of indemnity-type only ('I'-only) and of fixed amount+indemnity-type ('F+I') increased, whereas the proportion of holders with fixed amount-type only ('F'-only) decreased. Compared with subjects without private insurance, PMI policyholders were more likely to use outpatient and emergency services, and the number of policies was proportionately related to inpatient service utilization. Regarding out-patient care, subjects with 'F'-only PMI used these services more often than did uninsured subjects (odds ratio [OR], 1.69), whereas subjects with 'I'-only PMI or 'F+I' PMI utilized a broad range of inpatient, outpatient, and emergency services relative to uninsured subjects (ORs for 'I'-only: 1.39, 1.63, and 1.38, respectively; ORs for 'F+I': 1.67, 2.09, and 1.37, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest public policy approaches to standardizing PMI contracts, reform in calculation of premiums in PMI, re-examination regarding indemnity insurance products, and mutual control mechanisms to mediate between national health insurance services and private insurers are required.
Adolescent ; Ambulatory Care/*utilization ; Child ; Child, Preschool ; Female ; Health Surveys ; Humans ; Income ; Infant ; Infant, Newborn ; Insurance, Health/economics/*statistics & numerical data ; Male ; Medically Uninsured ; Odds Ratio ; Republic of Korea

OBJECTIVE: To compare the treatment costs on type 2 diabetes between patients with and without specific diseases health insurance, and to identify the influencing factors related to specific diseases health insurance application. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was used to investigate basic information, diabetes-related pharmacy, outpatient and inpatient treatment costs. SAS9.1 software was used for statistical analysis. The enumeration data was analyzed by using Chi-square test, and variables of statistical difference were bought into Logistic regression model through stepwise method. Continuous variables were represented by median(inter-quartile range)[M(Q)], and were analyzed by using Wilcoxon test. RESULTS: Compared with patients without specific disease health insurance in outpatient group, patients with specific disease health insurance had higher annual per capita total cost [2160(3081) vs 1000(2100) yuan, P<0.01] and lower out-of-pocket expense ratio [54.04% vs 93.78%, P<0.01]. Patients with middle or high level income (OR=1.94 and 2.11), participated in urban employee basic medical insurance (OR=4.19) and duration of disease >5 years (OR=2.04) were more likely to succeed in specific diseases health insurance application. CONCLUSION To reduce the financial burden of patients with type 2 diabetes, government should make huge efforts to promote specific disease health insurance policies, and encourage patients to apply for it. Meanwhile, medical insurance department and medical institutions should reinforce supervision and simplify the application process. To improve the availability of specific disease health insurance, the number and coverage of designated retail pharmacies should be increased. Besides, government should pay more attention to low-income patients and those with short duration diabetes, so as to enhance their ability to resist economic risks and reflect the fairness of specific disease health insurance.
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 ; drug therapy ; economics ; Health Care Costs ; Hospitalization ; Humans ; Insurance Coverage ; Insurance, Health ; Logistic Models ; Retrospective Studies

OBJECTIVEThis study aimed to investigate the value of child oral health for Chengdu parents, their intentions, and factors influencing their decision to acquire oral insurance coverage for their childrens.

METHODSA total of 562 Chengdu parents were interviewed using questionnaires by convenient sampling, and the results were analyzed using SPSS 20.0.

RESULTSThe age of children (B = -1.741, P = 0.004), age of parents (B = 2.031, P = 0.003), level of oral discomfort (B = 0.569, P = 0.000), incurring/not incurring oral care expenses in the previous year (B = 1.897, P = 0.014), the last time parents' had teeth cleaned (B = 0.777, P = 0.006), and acquiring/not acquiring commercial insurance coverage (B = 1.632, P = 0.031) significantly influenced the intention of acquiring child oral insurance.

CONCLUSIONChild oral health, health and insurance awareness of parents, and other factors influenced the intention of parents to purchase oral insurance coverage for their children, which were significant to establish pediatric dental insurance.

Child ; China ; Dental Care ; Health Expenditures ; Humans ; Insurance, Dental ; economics ; Oral Health ; economics ; Parents ; Surveys and Questionnaires