Background: With global trends of carbon neutrality and ecofriendliness, the demand for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has been rapidly increasing. However, occupational health research within this sector is significantly lacking. Thus, this study aimed to understand the industrial value chain, processes, and current status of hazardous chemicals associated with LIBs. Methods: Through a literature review and a survey of business sites, the LIB industry was categorized into 10 industrial groups. We visited 32 workplaces in the Republic of Korea, and conducted on-site surveys. Results: Primary mineral raw materials used in LIBs include lithium (Li), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), and aluminum (Al) often in compound forms, alongside graphite, posing significant challenges in management due to their micrometer-sized particles. Furthermore, metals used in a salt form (such as LiOH or sulfate salts) can irritate the skin or respiratory system, particularly Ni and Co known to be toxic substances designated as human carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Acids, bases, and various solvents are also used to improve batteries' electrical properties. Dichloromethane classified as carcinogenic 2A by the International Agency for Research on Cancer is widely used in the separator industry. Carbonate-based solvents are widely used in electrolytes with potential for exposure in battery cell manufacturers and recycling industries. However, they are not classified as regulated substances, leading to inadequate management practices. Conclusion This study identified processes of each industry and chemical substances utilized in the LIB industry in the Republic of Korea. Based on this study, it is necessary to implement appropriate management measures tailored to industrial processes and types of harmful factors.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to provide baseline data for the assessment of exposure to indium and to prevent adverse health effects among workers engaged in the electronics and related industries in Republic of Korea. Methods: Total (n = 369) and respirable (n = 384) indium concentrations were monitored using personal air sampling in workers at the following 19 workplaces: six sputtering target manufacturing companies, four manufacturing companies of panel displays, two companies engaged in cleaning of sputtering components, two companies dedicated to the cleaning of sputtering target, and five indium recycling companies. Results: The level of exposure to total indium ranged from 0.9 to 609.3 μg/m3 for the sputtering target companies; from 0.2 to 2,782.0 μg/m3 for the panel display companies and from 0.5 to 2,089.9 μg/m3 for the indium recycling companies. The level of exposure to respirable indium was in the range of 0.02 to 448.6 μg/m3 for the sputtering target companies; 0.01 to 419.5 μg/m3 for the panel display companies; and 0.5 to 436.3 μg/m3 for the indium recycling companies. The indium recycling companies had the most samples exceeding the exposure standard for indium, followed by sputtering target companies and panel display companies. Conclusions The main finding from this exposure assessment is that many workers who handle indium compounds in the electronics industry are exposed to indium levels that exceed the exposure standards for indium. Hence, it is necessary to continuously monitor the indium exposure of this workforce and take measures to reduce its exposure levels.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to provide baseline data for the assessment of exposure to indium and to prevent adverse health effects among workers engaged in the electronics and related industries in Republic of Korea. Methods: Total (n = 369) and respirable (n = 384) indium concentrations were monitored using personal air sampling in workers at the following 19 workplaces: six sputtering target manufacturing companies, four manufacturing companies of panel displays, two companies engaged in cleaning of sputtering components, two companies dedicated to the cleaning of sputtering target, and five indium recycling companies. Results: The level of exposure to total indium ranged from 0.9 to 609.3 μg/m3 for the sputtering target companies; from 0.2 to 2,782.0 μg/m3 for the panel display companies and from 0.5 to 2,089.9 μg/m3 for the indium recycling companies. The level of exposure to respirable indium was in the range of 0.02 to 448.6 μg/m3 for the sputtering target companies; 0.01 to 419.5 μg/m3 for the panel display companies; and 0.5 to 436.3 μg/m3 for the indium recycling companies. The indium recycling companies had the most samples exceeding the exposure standard for indium, followed by sputtering target companies and panel display companies. Conclusions The main finding from this exposure assessment is that many workers who handle indium compounds in the electronics industry are exposed to indium levels that exceed the exposure standards for indium. Hence, it is necessary to continuously monitor the indium exposure of this workforce and take measures to reduce its exposure levels.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to estimate the number of workers exposed to diesel engine exhaust (DEE) by industry and year in the Republic of Korea. METHOD: The estimates of workers potentially exposed to DEE in the Republic of Korea were calculated by industry on the basis of the carcinogen exposure (CAREX) surveillance system. The data on the labor force employed in DEE exposure industries were obtained from the Census on Establishments conducted by the Korea National Statistical Office from 1993 to 2013. The mean values of prevalence rates adopted by EU15 countries were used as the primary exposure prevalence rates. We also investigated the exposure prevalence rates and exposure characteristics of DEE in 359 workplaces representing 11 industries. RESULTS: The total number of workers exposed to DEE were estimated as 270,014 in 1993 and 417,034 in 2013 (2.2% of the total labor force). As of 2013, the industry categorized as “Land transport” showed the highest number of workers exposed to DEE with 174,359, followed by “Personal and household services” with 70,298, “Construction” with 45,555, “Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels” with 44,005, and “Sanitation and similar services” with 12,584. These five industries, with more than 10,000 workers exposed to DEE, accounted for 83% of the total DEE-exposed workers. Comparing primary prevalence rates used for preliminary estimation among 49 industries, “Metal ore mining” had the highest rate at 52.6%, followed by “Other mining” with 50.0%, and “Land transport” with 23.6%. CONCLUSION: The DEE prevalence rates we surveyed (1.3–19.8%) were higher than the primary prevalence rates. The most common emission sources of DEE were diesel engine vehicles such as forklifts, trucks, and vans. Our estimated numbers of workers exposed to DEE can be used to identify industries with workers requiring protection from potential exposure to DEE in the Republic of Korea.
Censuses ; Employment ; Family Characteristics ; Korea* ; Methods ; Motor Vehicles ; Prevalence ; Republic of Korea ; Restaurants ; Vehicle Emissions*