Objective: To explore the establishment of an efficient and automatic method to determine anatomical landmarks in three-dimensional (3D) facial data, and to evaluate the effectiveness of this method in determining landmarks. Methods: A total of 30 male patients with tooth defect or dentition defect (with good facial symmetry) who visited the Department of Prosthodontics, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology from June to August 2021 were selected, and these participants' age was between 18-45 years. 3D facial data of patients was collected and the size normalization and overlap alignment were performed based on the Procrustes analysis algorithm. A 3D face average model was built in Geomagic Studio 2013 software, and a 3D face template was built through parametric processing. MeshLab 2020 software was used to determine the serial number information of 32 facial anatomical landmarks (10 midline landmarks and 22 bilateral landmarks). Five male patients with no mandibular deviation and 5 with mild mandibular deviation were selected from the Department of Orthodontics or Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology from June to August 2021. 3D facial data of patients was collected as test data. Based on the 3D face template and the serial number information of the facial anatomical landmarks, the coordinates of 32 facial anatomical landmarks on the test data were automatically determined with the help of the MeshMonk non-rigid registration algorithm program, as the data for the template method to determine the landmarks. The positions of 32 facial anatomical landmarks on the test data were manually determined by the same attending physician, and the coordinates of the landmarks were recorded as the data for determining landmarks by the expert method. Calculated the distance value of the coordinates of facial anatomical landmarks between the template method and the expert method, as the landmark localization error, and evaluated the effect of the template method in determining the landmarks. Results: For 5 patients with no mandibular deviation, the landmark localization error of all facial anatomical landmarks by template method was (1.65±1.19) mm, the landmark localization error of the midline facial anatomical landmarks was (1.19±0.45) mm, the landmark localization error of bilateral facial anatomical landmarks was (1.85±1.33) mm. For 5 patients with mild mandibular deviation, the landmark localization error of all facial anatomical landmarks by template method was (2.55±2.22) mm, the landmark localization error of the midline facial anatomical landmarks was (1.85±1.13) mm, the landmark localization error of bilateral facial anatomical landmarks was (2.87±2.45) mm. Conclusions: The automatic determination method of facial anatomical landmarks proposed in this study has certain feasibility, and the determination effect of midline facial anatomical landmarks is better than that of bilateral facial anatomical landmarks. The effect of determining facial anatomical landmarks in patients without mandibular deviation is better than that in patients with mild mandibular deviation.
Adolescent ; Adult ; Algorithms ; Anatomic Landmarks ; Cephalometry/methods* ; Face/anatomy & histology* ; Female ; Humans ; Imaging, Three-Dimensional/methods* ; Male ; Malocclusion ; Middle Aged ; Orthodontics ; Software ; Young Adult

Individual identification is one of the research hotspots in the practice of forensic science, and the judgment is usually built on the comparison of the unique biological characteristics of the individual, such as fingerprints, iris and DNA. With the dramatic increase in the number of cases related to video image investigations, there is an increasing need for the technology to identify individuals based on the macroscopic comparison of facial appearance biometrics. At present, with the introduction of computer three-dimensional (3D) modeling and 3D superimposition comparison technology, considerable progress has been made in individual identification methods based on macroscopic comparison of facial appearance biometrics. This paper reviews individual facial appearance biometric methods based on macroscopical comparison, comprehensively analyzes the advantages and limitations of different methods, and puts forward recommendations and prospects for subsequent research.
Biometric Identification ; Biometry/methods* ; Face/anatomy & histology* ; Forensic Sciences/methods* ; Humans

OBJECTIVES: To search age-correlated facial features and construct an age estimation model based on the three-dimensional （3D） facial images of Xinjiang Uygur males, and to structure individual face images of old age and young age. METHODS: Pretreatment was performed to collect 105 3D facial images of Xingjiang Uygur males aged between 17-57 years by Artec Studio software. The facial images were transferred to high-density 3D dot matrix data by FaceAnalysis software, and each image could be represented with 32 251 vertexes. Central correction of the facial images was done and all the data were aligned to a standard coordinate frame by generalized Procrustes analysis （GPA）. The age estimation model was established by partial least square regression （PLSR）. Furthermore, the changes of age-correlated facial features were presented on the heat map of average face, and the reconstruction of facial images at different ages was performed based on this model. RESULTS: With age, the average faces showed a series of changes including the nasolabial sulcus deepening, cheek sinking, cheekbone protruding and eye corner drooping. The Pearson correlation coefficient （r） between estimated age and chronological age was 0.71. The mean absolute deviation （MAD） of age estimation was 6.37 years. The results of age estimation in >30-40 years group showed a best accuracy （MAD=4.27 years）, and the deviations increased with age after 40 years. The composite facial images represented a significant result with age on facial morphological features and aging. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study reveal the age-correlated facial features and aging markers in Uygur population, which help to construct a reliable age estimation model.
Adolescent ; Adult ; Aging/physiology* ; Face/anatomy & histology* ; Head/anatomy & histology* ; Humans ; Imaging, Three-Dimensional/methods* ; Male ; Middle Aged ; Software ; Young Adult

OBJECTIVETo investigate the facial aging analysis of 1200 Han adult people in Dalian with iris diameter, so as to provide reference for facial rejuvenation in Han people.

METHODS1200 facial digital photographs from the second-generation ID card of China were stratified randomly selected as the research sample, excluding facial deformity, tattooing eyebrow, tattooing lid margin, ptosis, lip grain and eyebrow deformity cases, as well as the cases whose join point of upper eyelid and lower eyelid not exposed at the nasal side. These photos were divided into six cohorts: female aged 18, 38, and 68 years old; and male aged 18, 38, and 68 years old, with 200 cases in each cohort. The individual iris diameter was divided into 20 equal parts in each photograph, with each part marked one unit as individual iris diameter ruler. Ten values were made from a horizontal plane between the medial canthus to ten points at one face ( the line between two medial canthus is used as the horizontal line, circumocular and facial soft tissue were measured with individual iris diameter ruler on the photographs), then the results were analyzed with Adobe Photoshop software.

RESULTSThere are statistically significant differences in eyebrow height (36.42 ± 4.22 unit in 18 years old male group, 40.22 ± 6.90 unit in 38 years old male group, 34.83 ± 9.39 unit in 68 years old male group; 37.59 ± 6.72 unit in 18 years old female group, 41.09 ± 5.15 unit in 38 years old female group, 36.84 ± 9.45 unit in 68 years old female group), palpebral fissure height, physiognomic external canthus height, palpebral fissure width, pupil height and other items (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS(1) The brow position rises to the peak level at middle age (38 years old group), then drops down gradually with aging. (2) The physiognomic external canthus moves towards the nasal side and caudal side with aging. (3) Eyeball moves towards caudal side with aging. (4) The soft tissue around bilateral angle of mouth, nasal tip and submaxilla moves towards caudal side with aging. (5) The measurement of individual iris diameter ruler can apply to analyze the aging changes of facial soft tissue, and is more suitable for the case when facial photographs are taken at different distances.

Adolescent ; Adult ; Age Factors ; Aged ; Aging ; China ; ethnology ; Cohort Studies ; Eye ; anatomy & histology ; Eyebrows ; anatomy & histology ; Face ; anatomy & histology ; Female ; Humans ; Iris ; anatomy & histology ; Lip ; anatomy & histology ; Male ; Nose ; anatomy & histology ; Photography ; Rejuvenation ; Sex Factors

OBJECTIVE: To establish regression model between craniofacial lines and body height by measuring craniofacial lines in Southwest Han males using CT and to accumulate data for the study of forensic anthropology. METHODS: Head CT data of 273 Han males in Southwest were collected and 7 craniofacial lines were determined. Multiplanar reconstruction and volume rendering were performed by image post-processing software and the selected lines were measured. The relationship between each measuring indicator and body height was analyzed using SPSS 21.0 software. The regression equation of body height estimation was established and 50 samples were selected again and put into the mathematics models to verify its accuracy. RESULTS: The linear regression equations of 7 lines were established (P < 0.05). The correlation coefficients of the unary linear regression equations were 0.190-0.439 and the standard errors of the estimate (SEE) were 4.597-5.023 cm. The correlation coefficients of the multiple linear regression equation were 0.494-0.524 and the SEE were 4.418-4.458 cm. The return tests showed that the highest ± 1SEE accuracy of the multiple regression equation: y = 83.959+3.589 x6+2.573 x2, were 30%; and the highest ± 2SEE accuracy of the multiple regression equation: y = 72.646+3.316 x6+1.586 x2+1.553 x4+2.211 x3, were 92%. CONCLUSION There is significant linear correlation between 7 selected lines and the stature in this study, and the plural linear regression equation established could be applied for estimating the stature of Southwest Han males.
Asian People ; Body Height ; Face/anatomy & histology* ; Forensic Anthropology ; Head/anatomy & histology* ; Humans ; Image Processing, Computer-Assisted ; Linear Models ; Male ; Software ; Tomography, X-Ray Computed

OBJECTIVETo study the influence of nasolabial angle alteration on facial profile attractiveness and investigate the perception differences in profile attractiveness among laypeople.

METHODSA young Chinese female with normal hard and soft tissue cephalometric values was chosen as a research object. Profile photograph was taken in a natural head position. Photoshop software was chosen to rotate the nose tip and upper lip, thus changing the degree and direction of nasolabial angle. A total of 33 different profile pictures were achieved. Thirty-three professional orthodontists and 64 non-professionals were chosen to score these 33 pictures.

RESULTSWhen the upper lip position was fixed, the profile was considerably attractive because the angle of nasal tip was not changed or altered. When the nasal tip rotation angle was fixed, profiles with a retroclined upper lip were considered significantly attractive by the layperson and professional groups. Regardless of the direction of the nasal tip rotation, the respondents considered the profile with a retroclined upper lip highly attractive.

CONCLUSIONThe soft tissue profile with a retroclined upper lip looks considerably attractive in Chinese female populations. Therefore, during an orthodontic treatment, appropriate retraction of the incisor is recommended to improve soft tissue profile attractiveness.

Cephalometry ; Esthetics ; Face ; anatomy & histology ; Female ; Humans ; Incisor ; Lip ; Nose

OBJECTIVETo explore the anatomic basis and clinical application of the horn shaped perforator flap pedicled with the angular artery for the reconstruction of midface defect.

METHODS(1) 10 fresh cadavers were perfused with a modified guiding oxide gelatin mixture for three-dimensional visualization reconstruction using a 16-slice spiral computed tomography scanner and specialized software (Materiaise' s interactive medical image control system, MIMICS). The origin and distribution of the angular artery perforator were observed. (2) Between July 2012 and July 2014, twenty-one patients underwent operations for the reconstruction of midface defect. Ten patients had squamous cell carcinoma, nine patients had basal cell carcinoma and two patients had nevus. The flaps' size ranged from 1.5 cm x 3.5 cm to 2.5 cm x 5.0 cm.

RESULTSThe facial artery branches the lateral nasal artery 1 cm from the outside corner of the mouth, subsequently strenches to inner canthus continuing as the angular artery. The angular artery anastomoses extensively with the dorsal nasal artery and the infraorbital artery. All the flaps survived. The patients were satisfied with the final aesthetic and functional results.

CONCLUSIONSThe flap can be designed flexibly and simply with reliable blood supply. The donor sites could be closed directly without skin graft, it is a simple and fast method for the reconstruction of midface defect.

Anastomosis, Surgical ; methods ; Arteries ; anatomy & histology ; Cadaver ; Carcinoma, Basal Cell ; surgery ; Carcinoma, Squamous Cell ; surgery ; Face ; blood supply ; Facial Neoplasms ; surgery ; Humans ; Nevus ; surgery ; Nose ; blood supply ; Perforator Flap ; blood supply ; transplantation ; Skin Neoplasms ; surgery ; Skin Transplantation ; Software ; Tomography, Spiral Computed

OBJECTIVETo evaluate the predictive accuracy of the SurgiCase CMF software in surgical simulation and prediction for mandibular asymmetry with 3-dimensional simulation and measurement.

METHODSCBCT data of 27 patients with mandibular asymmetry were observed in CMF, and postoperative soft tissue physiognomy were predicted by simulating sagittal ramus osteotomy with or without genioplasty. The measurement parameters representing the symmetry of soft tissue were selected and the horizontal, coronal and sagittal planes were established. The results were analyzed by SPSS 19. 0. The overlap compared color grading charts were observed.

RESULTSAngles between cheilions and the horizonta plane (Ch-Ch-FH) in the simulation and postoperative soft tissues are (2. 35 ± 1. 81)° and (1. 44 ± 1. 13)°. The angles constructed among subnasale, upper lip and lower lip (Sn-UL-LL) are (4. 02 ± 3. 05)° and (2. 59 ± 1. 64)°, showing statistically different (P < 0. 01, P < 0. 05), which means that predictive accuracy of the lip canting and lip vertical deviation is relatively low. Distance between gonioi and sagittal plane (Go'-MS), distance between gonion and pogonion (Go'-Pog') and angle betweer subnasale to menton and the horizontal plane (Sn-Me'-MS) are not statistically different, which mean! high predictive accuracy of mandibular angle and chin. By observing the overlap compared color gradin-) charts, the predictive accuracy is not good in the cheek, especially in the deviate side.

CONCLUSIONSThe predictive accuracy of CMF system for patients with mandibular asymmetry is relatively high, but it is not good in the lip and cheek. The software improvement is still necessary.

Cephalometry ; methods ; Chin ; anatomy & histology ; Cone-Beam Computed Tomography ; methods ; Face ; Humans ; Lip ; anatomy & histology ; Mandible ; abnormalities ; surgery ; Osteotomy ; methods ; Software ; Surgery, Computer-Assisted ; methods

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the characteristics soft tissue profile in Hunan Han adults with normal occlusion and to explore the differences of the soft tissue profile in gender, region and race. METHODS: Lateral cephalometric radiographs were performed for 323 volunteers (164 females and 159 males) from Hunan Province. The digital cephalometric radiographs were imported into the WinCeph8.0 measurement and analysis system in a same computer. According to the Holdaway analysis method, the mean and standard deviation were calculated. Then the results were compared to the data from Liaoning, Nepalese, Japanese, North American Caucasians. RESULTS: The normal value of cephalometric facial soft tissue profile in Han population adults with normal occlusion in Hunan Province were obtained. There were significant differences in subnasale to H line (Sn-H), upper lip tension, lower lip sulcus depth (Si-PgsLs), and soft tissue chin thickness (Pg-Pgs) between males and females (all P<0.05). Compared with Liaoning Province, significant regional differences in soft tissue facial angle (FH-NsPgs), upper lip sulcus depth (Ss-Ls), Sn-H, lower lip thickness, upper lip thickness, H angle, lower lip to H line (Li-PgsLs), Si-PgsLs, and Pg-Pgs were found in Hunan Province (all P<0.05). Compared with the Japan, significant regional differences in FH-NsPgs, nose prominence (Sn-Pn), lower lip thickness, upper lip tensity, H angle, Li-PgsLs, Si-PgsLs, and Pg-Pgs were found in Hunan Province (all P<0.05). Compared with the Nepalese, significant regional differences in Sn-Pn, Ss-Ls, Sn-H, skeletal profile convexity (A-NPs), basic upper lip thickness, upper lip tensity, H angle, Li-PgsLs and Pg-Pgs were found in Hunan Province (all P<0.05). Compared with the North America, significant regional differences in Sn-Pn, Ss-Ls, Sn-H, A-NPs, basic upper lip thickness, upper lip tensity, H angle, Li-PgsLs, Si-PgsLs and Pg-Pgs were found in Hunan Province (all P<0.05). CONCLUSION There are both similarities and differences in facial soft tissue profile between males and females with normal occlusion in Hunan Province. The characteristics of facial soft tissue profile in Hunan Province are different from that in Liaoning area, Nepal, Japan and North America.
Adult ; Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; Cephalometry ; European Continental Ancestry Group ; Face ; anatomy & histology ; Female ; Humans ; Lip ; anatomy & histology ; Male ; Reference Values

OBJECTIVE: To study our experiences in anatomy of marginal mandibular branch of facial never in partial parotidectomy. METHOD: Thirty-eight cases receiving partial parotidectomy were analyzed retrospectively, and marginal mandibular branch of facial nerve were separated in all cases. RESULT: Temporary facial paralysis appeared in 2 cases and Frey's syndrome appeared in 2 cases. There was no patient appeared the recurrence in the 1-3 years followed up time. CONCLUSION Partial parotidectomy with anatomy of marginal mandibular branch of facial nerve is a safe, effective and minimally invasive therapeutic method for benign tumor on parotid gland (<5 cm).
Face ; Facial Nerve ; anatomy & histology ; Facial Paralysis ; Humans ; Mandible ; Neoplasm Recurrence, Local ; Parotid Gland ; Parotid Neoplasms ; surgery ; Postoperative Complications ; Retrospective Studies ; Sweating, Gustatory