Mechanical stimulus is critical to cardiovascular development during embryogenesis period.The mechanoreceptors of endocardial cells and cardiac myocytes may sense mechanical signals and initiate signal transduction that induce gene expression at a cellular level,and then translate molecular-level events into tissue-level deformations,thus guiding embryo development.This review summarizes the regulatory roles of mechanical signals in the early cardiac development including the formation of heart tube,looping,valve and septal morphogenesis,ventricular development and maturation.Further,we discuss the potential mechanical transduction mechanisms of platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1-vascular endothelial-cadherin-vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 complex,primary cilia,ion channels,and other mechanical sensors that affect some cardiac malformations.
Animals ; Heart/embryology* ; Humans ; Mechanotransduction, Cellular ; Myocytes, Cardiac/physiology* ; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A/metabolism*

Animals ; Cdc20 Proteins/metabolism* ; Cell Line ; Embryo, Mammalian/embryology* ; Embryonic Development ; Female ; Infertility, Female/metabolism* ; Mice ; Mutation ; Oocytes/metabolism*

Cloacal malformations are characterized by the confluence of the lower urinary tract, the female reproductive tract, and the rectum to create a common channel with a single opening on the perineum. The presence of a cloaca is a normal phase of early human embryological development. Between the 4^th and 7^th weeks of gestation, the cloaca undergoes subdivision to form the hindgut and urogenital sinus. Failure of this process results in the congenital anomaly termed persistent cloaca (PC). The term urorectal septum malformation sequence (URSMS) is also used to describe this anomaly. The classic description of this process which is still cited in many standard textbooks dates from the 19^th century. However, this has been increasingly called into question by the findings of studies using modern scientific methodology. Urogenital sinus anomalies are defined by the confluence of the urethra and vagina to form a common channel of varying length with a single perineal opening. In this condition, the anorectal canal opens separately on the perineum. The presence of a urogenital sinus represents a transient phase of the normal development of the lower genital tract in the female fetus. However, the form of urogenital sinus most commonly encountered in the developed world is a feature of disordered sexual differentiation and does not arise simply from the persistence of the anatomical structure which is a feature of normal fetal development.
Cloaca/embryology* ; Female ; Humans ; Urogenital Abnormalities/embryology* ; Vagina/embryology*

Understanding limb development not only gives insights into the outgrowth and differentiation of the limb, but also has clinical relevance. Limb development begins with two paired limb buds (forelimb and hindlimb buds), which are initially undifferentiated mesenchymal cells tipped with a thickening of the ectoderm, termed the apical ectodermal ridge (AER). As a transitional embryonic structure, the AER undergoes four stages and contributes to multiple axes of limb development through the coordination of signalling centres, feedback loops, and other cell activities by secretory signalling and the activation of gene expression. Within the scope of proximodistal patterning, it is understood that while fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) function sequentially over time as primary components of the AER signalling process, there is still no consensus on models that would explain proximodistal patterning itself. In anteroposterior patterning, the AER has a dual-direction regulation by which it promotes the sonic hedgehog (Shh) gene expression in the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) for proliferation, and inhibits Shh expression in the anterior mesenchyme. In dorsoventral patterning, the AER activates Engrailed-1 (En1) expression, and thus represses Wnt family member 7a (Wnt7a) expression in the ventral ectoderm by the expression of Fgfs, Sp6/8, and bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp) genes. The AER also plays a vital role in shaping the individual digits, since levels of Fgf4/8 and Bmps expressed in the AER affect digit patterning by controlling apoptosis. In summary, the knowledge of crosstalk within AER among the three main axes is essential to understand limb growth and pattern formation, as the development of its areas proceeds simultaneously.
Animals ; Apoptosis ; Body Patterning ; Bone Morphogenetic Proteins/biosynthesis* ; Developmental Biology ; Ectoderm/metabolism* ; Extremities/embryology* ; Fibroblast Growth Factor 10/metabolism* ; Fibroblast Growth Factors/biosynthesis* ; Gene Expression Regulation ; Hedgehog Proteins/biosynthesis* ; Homeodomain Proteins/biosynthesis* ; Mesoderm/metabolism* ; Mice ; Signal Transduction ; Wnt Proteins/biosynthesis*

Cells, Cultured ; Cyclic Nucleotide Phosphodiesterases, Type 2 ; antagonists & inhibitors ; metabolism ; Fibroblasts ; drug effects ; metabolism ; Glucosides ; pharmacology ; Humans ; Lung ; cytology ; embryology ; Phenols ; pharmacology ; Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors ; pharmacology ; Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 ; metabolism

In their embryology, Aristotle and Galen greatly disagreed on the role of human derived materials like menstrual blood and vaginal secretion (called by them female sperm or semen). This gap made those two ancients also disagree on their understanding of mother's role in the generation of the human body in her womb. During the Middle Ages, especially during the thirteenth century, the scholastics drew on those two ancient thoughts for some rational underpinnings of their philosophical and theological doctrines. However, the manners of adoption and assimilation were varied. For example, Albert the Great strived to reconcile the two in the image of Avicenna, one of the main and the most important sources of Galenist medicine in the thirteenth Century. By contrast, those scholastics who played an important role in the controversy over plurality/unicity of the substantial form, drew on their disagreements. For example, pluralists like Bonaventure, William of la Mare, and Duns Scotus appealed to Galenist medical perspective to underpin their positions and paved ways to decorate Virgin Mary's motherhood and her active contribution to the Virgin birth and to the manhood of her Holy Son. in contrast a unicist like Thomas Aquinas advanced his theory in line with Aristotelian model that Mary's role in her Son's birth and manhood was passive and material. Giles, another unicist, while repudiating Galenist embryology with the support of Averroes's medical work called Colliget, alluded to some theologically crucial impieties with which might be associated some pluralists' Mariology based on the Roman physician's model. In this processus historiae, we can see not only the intertwining of medieval medicine, philosophy, and theology, but some critical moments where medicine provided, side by side with philosophy, natural settings and explanations for religious marvels or miracles such as the Virgin birth, the motherhood of Mary, the manhood of Christ, etc. Likewise, we can observe two medieval maxims coincide and resonate: “philosophia ancilla theologiae” and “philosophia et medicina duae sorores sunt.”
Embryology ; Female ; Human Body ; Humans ; Parturition ; Philosophy ; Spermatozoa ; Theology

embryology for this is unclear, surgeons and physicians should be aware of such anatomical variants in order to better understand pain and entrapment syndromes and during surgical maneuvers in this region such as lateral transpsoas approaches to the lumbar spine.]]>
Cadaver ; Embryology ; Femoral Nerve ; Femur ; Intervertebral Disc ; Ligaments ; Lumbosacral Plexus ; Pelvis ; Psoas Muscles ; Spinal Nerves ; Spine ; Surgeons

In 2011, the International League against Epilepsy (ILAE) proposed a first international consensus of the classification of focal cortical dysplasia (FCD). This FCD classification had been widely used in worldwide. In this review paper, the authors would like to give helpful comments for better understanding of the current FCD classification. Especially, the basic concepts of FCD type I, such as “radial”, “tangential” and “microcolumn” will be discussed with figures. In addition, the limitations, genetic progress and prospect of FCD will be suggested.
Classification ; Consensus ; Embryology ; Epilepsy ; Humans ; Malformations of Cortical Development ; Pathology

The expansion and folding of the cerebral cortex occur during brain development and are critical factors that influence cognitive ability and sensorimotor skills. The disruption of cortical growth and folding may cause neurological disorders, resulting in severe intellectual disability and intractable epilepsy in humans. Therefore, understanding the mechanism that regulates cortical growth and folding will be crucial in deciphering the key steps of brain development and finding new therapeutic targets for the congenital anomalies of the cerebral cortex. This review will start with a brief introduction describing the anatomy of the brain cortex, followed by a description of our understanding of the proliferation, differentiation, and migration of neural progenitors and important genes and molecules that are involved in these processes. Finally, various types of disorders that develop due to malformation of the cerebral cortex will be discussed.
Brain ; Cerebral Cortex ; Drug Resistant Epilepsy ; Embryology ; Humans ; Intellectual Disability ; Malformations of Cortical Development ; Nervous System Diseases

PURPOSE: There are known differences in embryology, clinical symptoms, incidences, molecular pathways involved, and oncologic outcomes of right-sided and left-sided colorectal cancers. However, immunologic study has only been characterized for healthy adults. The present study was designed to identify differences in immune cell populations in patients with right-sided and left-sided colorectal cancers.METHODS: A total of 35 patients who underwent colorectal resection for cancer between November 2016 and August 2017 at a tertiary teaching hospital were enrolled in this study. Patients were excluded if they had a disease affecting their immune system. Populations of immune cells, including mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT), gamma delta T, invariant natural killer T, T, natural killer, and B cells, were measured in the peripheral blood and cancer tissues using flow cytometry, and then assessed based on the origin of the colorectal cancer.RESULTS: Fifteen had right-side and 20 had left-side colorectal cancer. There were no significant differences between the 2 cohorts for patient characteristics including pathologic stage. Peripheral blood from patients with right-side colon cancers contained fewer MAIT (0.87% right-side vs. 1.74% left-side, P = 0.028) and gamma delta T cells (1.10% right-side vs. 3.05% left-side, P = 0.002). Although the group with right-side colorectal cancer had more MAIT cells in cancer tissues (1.71% vs. 1.00%), this difference was not statistically significant.CONCLUSION: There is a difference in population sizes of immune cells in blood between patients with right-sided and leftsided colon cancers. The immune cell composition was determined to be distinct based on embryologic origin.
Adult ; B-Lymphocytes ; Cohort Studies ; Colonic Neoplasms ; Colorectal Neoplasms ; Embryology ; Flow Cytometry ; Hospitals, Teaching ; Humans ; Immune System ; Incidence ; Population Density ; T-Lymphocytes