Similarly to conventional steroids,bile acids function as signaling molecules,acting on a family of membrane and nuclear receptors.The best-characterized bile acid-regulated receptors are the farnesoid X receptor,activated by primary bile acids,and the G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1(also known as Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5),which is activated by secondary bile acids,such as lithocholic acid(LCA)and deoxycholic acid.Both the farnesoid X receptor and G-protein-coupled bile acid receptor 1 are expressed in cells of innate immunity,monocytes/macrophages,and natural killer cells.Their activation in these cells provides counter-regulatory signals that are inhibitory in nature and attenuate inflam-mation.In recent years,however,it has been increasingly appreciated that bile acids biotransformations by intestinal microbiota result in the formation of chemically different secondary bile acids that potently regulate adaptive immunity.The 3-oxoLCA and isoalloLCA,two LCA derivatives,bind receptors such as the retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor gamma t(RORγt)and the vitamin D receptor(VDR)that are expressed only by lymphoid cells,extending the regulatory role of bile acids to T cells,including T-helper 17 cells and type 3 innate lymphoid cells(ILC3).In this novel conceptual framework,bile acids have emerged as one of the main components of the postbiota,the waste array of chemical mediators generated by the intestinal microbiota.Deciphering the interaction of these mediators with the immune system in the intestine and liver is a novel and fascinating area of bile acid renaissance.