Background: Numerous studies have shown that air pollution is a serious public health threat and risk worldwide. Mongolia is the world leader in outdoor and indoor air pollution, and the morbidity and mortality caused by it are increasing every year. People spend most of their lives indoors, and it is necessary to regularly assess and study indoor air pollution. Aim: To study the concentration of PM2.5 particles in the indoor air of households in Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan cities in relation to some symptoms of respiratory diseases. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted using an analytical cohort design from October 2023 to July 2025, and the 4 districts of the central Ulaanbaatar city and Darkhan cities were included in the study. A total of 240 households were included in the study, including 48 households living in ger and house, 24 households living in apartments, and 48 households living in ger and house, and 24 households living in apartments from Ulaanbaatar city. A direct measurement device (PurpleAir) was installed in the households for 3-4 weeks to measure PM2.5 particles in the indoor air for 24 hours. After measuring PM2.5 particles in the indoor air of the household, data were collected through questionnaires from the participants aged 18-60 who participated in the study and underwent health examinations. The results were processed using STATA-19.0 and R programs. Result: 213-239 households were selected for the study, including households living in 17-26 apartments, 42-58 houses, and 38-50 houses. The 24-hour average concentration of PM2.5 particles in the ambient air of households in Ulaanbaatar city was measured relatively higher in winter and summer than in households in Darkhan city. Among the districts of Ulaanbaatar city, the highest concentration of PM2.5 particles was measured in Songinokhairkhan district, and the lowest concentration was measured in Bayanzurkh district. Considering the cities by heating type, households with stoves are more polluted than households with centralized heating. In Darkhan city, the lowest concentration was measured in apartments (22.78-31.53 μg/m³), houses (44.53-68.17 μg/m³), and the highest concentration was measured in traditional felt houses (houses) (63.20-68.25 μg/m³). In Ulaanbaatar, PM2.5 concentrations were relatively high in all types of housing, including apartments (41.61-58.37 μg/m³), houses (79.22-92.50 μg/m³), and traditional felt dwellings (76.69-86.31 μg/m³). In the summer, PM2.5 concentrations in Darkhan were 3.10-10.03 μg/m³ in apartments, 7.67-14.37 μg/m³ in houses, and 7.98-17.90 μg/m³ in traditional felt dwellings (houses). The concentration of PM2.5 particles in the ambient air of the settlement is statistically significantly associated with shortness of breath, fatigue, weakness, muscle pain, nausea, palpitations, sneezing, runny nose, conjunctivitis, pain in the eye socket, tearing of the eyes, headache, fever, nasal congestion, cough, loss of appetite, sore throat, phlegm, wheezing, and chest pain. Conclusion The 24-hour average concentration of PM2.5 particles in indoor air in households in Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan cities is higher than the Mongolian standard during winter and is statistically significantly associated with some symptoms of respiratory diseases.

Background: Ambient and household air pollution remain leading risk factors for global morbidity and mortality. Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅) is associated with increased risks of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as lung cancer, metabolic and neurological disorders, and immune dysfunction. In urban areas of Mongolia, air pollution reaches critical levels during the winter season. Although improved solid fuels have been introduced in recent years, their impact on both outdoor and indoor air quality remains insufficiently characterized. Aim: To compare outdoor and household air pollution levels in Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan cities. Materials and Methods: Outdoor air pollution data for Ulaanbaatar were obtained from fixed monitoring stations of the National Agency for Meteorology and Environmental Monitoring for the period 2014–2026, with seasonal comparisons performed. For indoor air quality assessment, a longitudinal study was conducted among 240 households (apartments, houses, and traditional gers) in Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan from 2023 to 2026. PM₂.₅ concentrations were measured using real-time sensors (PurpleAir sensor), deployed for 14–21 days per season (winter and summer) in each household, recording data at 10-minute intervals over 24-hour periods. Result: Between 2014 and 2026, the 24-hour mean concentrations in Ulaanbaatar were 60.5 µg/m for PM₂.₅, 117.3 µg/m for PM₁₀, 37.3 µg/m for NO₂, 41.8 µg/m for SO₂, and 27.5 µg/m for O₃. While particulate matter levels showed a decreasing trend following the introduction of improved fuels, SO₂ concentrations increased, and overall pollution levels remained higher than those observed in Darkhan. Indoor PM₂.₅ concentrations were higher in Ulaanbaatar compared to Darkhan (60.7±86.1 vs 48.4±96.7 µg/m). Significant differences were observed by housing type (p<0.0001), with higher concentrations in households using solid fuels (houses and gers) and lower levels in apartments. These findings indicate substantial variability in indoor air pollution by city, housing type, and season, with persistently elevated exposure levels. Conclusion Outdoor air pollutant concentrations in Ulaanbaatar, including particulate matter, NO₂, and SO₂, exceed national standards and WHO guideline values by 1–4 times. Indoor PM₂.₅ pollution is higher in Ulaanbaatar than in Darkhan and varies significantly by housing type and season, indicating a high and heterogeneous exposure burden among urban populations.

Background: Substance use remains a critical public health and social concern, closely linked to increased sexual risk behaviors and a heightened vulnerability to sexually transmitted infections (STIs), particularly HIV and syphilis. International and national evidence suggests that individuals who use drugs often experience impaired judgment during intoxication, leading to unprotected intercourse, casual sexual encounters, and multiple sexual partners. In Mongolia, empirical data regarding sexual risk behaviors within this population remain scarce. Therefore, there is a pressing need to determine the prevalence of sexual risk behaviors and identify the specific factors influencing these patterns among drug users. Materials and Methods: This study employed a cross-sectional analytical design involving 181 participants who use drugs. Data were collected via structured questionnaires. Sexual risk behavior was evaluated using two approaches: as a dichotomous categorical variable and as a cumulative sexual risk score. Statistical analysis was performed using frequency distributions, percentages, means, and standard deviations. The associations between variables were tested using the (chi square test, Pearson correlation analysis, and multiple linear regression models. Results: The findings revealed that 12.2% of participants exhibited high-level sexual risk behaviors, with a mean cumulative risk score of 8.13 ±4.40. Engaging in sexual intercourse while under the influence of alcohol, the frequency of intoxicated sex (reported as "often" or "always"), and a history of casual sexual encounters were significantly associated with sexual risk behaviors. Furthermore, gender, cohabitation status, condom use during the first sexual experience, and the frequency of alcohol-involved sexual encounters were statistically significant predictors of the cumulative risk score. A weak positive correlation was observed between the number of sexual partners in the past year and the cumulative sexual risk score, which remained a significant positive predictor in the linear regression model. Conclusion Sexual risk behavior among people who use drugs is more closely associated with behavioral factors—such as alcohol-influenced sexual activity, casual encounters, lack of condom use during sexual debut, and multiple partnership—than with basic socio-demographic characteristics. Consequently, risk reduction interventions should move beyond general awareness. Efforts must prioritize reducing substance- and alcohol-related sexual risks, promoting consistent condom use, and enhancing the accessibility of STI screening and counseling services tailored to this high-risk group.

Background: Drug use is closely associated with sexually transmitted infections, especially syphilis and HIV, through unsafe sexual practices, multiple partners, and high-risk patterns of substance use. Prisoners with a history of drug use represent a particularly vulnerable subgroup. Aim: This study aimed to determine the prevalence of rapid syphilis test positivity and selected associated factors among incarcerated people who use drugs. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional analytic study was conducted among 105 prisoners. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire and a finger-prick rapid dual test. Descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and Fisher exact tests were used, with p<0.05 considered statistically significant. Results: The mean age of participants was 29.1±8.4 years; 78.1% were male. A history of STI was reported by 16.2%, STI-related symptoms during the last 12 months by 19.0%, STI testing during the last 12 months by 39.0%, and STI testing while incarcerated by 45.7%. However, 79.0% had received STI-related education or information. Among 81 participants with valid rapid syphilis test results, 27 were positive, giving a prevalence of 33.3%. Syphilis positivity was significantly higher among those using more than one route of drug administration (41.4% vs 13.0%, p=0.018) and among those with a prior STI history (70.0% vs 26.6%, p=0.011). No significant associations were found with sex, age, education, marital status, cohabitation, income, syringe use, recent STI symptoms, casual sex before arrest, or overall sexual risk behavior. Conclusion These findings suggest that targeted syphilis screening, counseling, and linkage to confirmatory testing and treatment should be strengthened among incarcerated people who use drugs, particularly those with multi-route drug use and a previous STI history.

Background: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death in Mongolia. Khoroos of Ulaanbaatar differ markedly in settlement type, green space and air pollution, but standardised CVD morbidity has not been mapped at this level. Aim: To standardise registered CVD and hypertension morbidity across khoroos of the six central districts, identify hot and cold spots, and describe their environmental characteristics. Materials and Methods: This registry-based ecological cross-sectional study used 2022 and 2024 individual-level records of CVD (I00–I99, excluding venous diseases) and hypertension (I10–I15) for residents of 189 khoroos. Repeat visits were removed so that each person was counted once per year, and the 33 khoroos created in 2022 were merged with their parent khoroos (156 units). Rates were standardised directly to the WHO world population and indirectly by age and sex (standardised morbidity ratio, SMR). Hot and cold spots were identified with the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic and compared with environmental indicators using Spearman correlation. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences (No. 2022/3-11). Results: In total, 192,665 person-years with CVD and 86,902 with hypertension were registered. The city-wide age-standardised rate per 10,000 population was 747.2 for CVD and 341.2 for hypertension. CVD rates varied 2.1-fold between districts (Khan-Uul 477.2, Bayangol 979.1). CVD (Moran’s I=0.19) and hypertension (I=0.12) showed weak but significant clustering. Of the 16 CVD hot spots, 15 were in Bayangol district, and 14 of the 16 cold spots were in Khan-Uul district. Hot spots were dense central khoroos with little green space (median 2.3%) and higher PM2.5 (44.6 µg/m³); cold spots had abundant green space (70.4%) and lower PM2.5 (26.3 µg/m³). SMRs correlated inversely with green space (ρ=−0.36) and positively with PM2.5 and SO2 (ρ=0.25–0.29), but not with the share of ger areas or elevation. Only 4.4% of CVD records of Khan-Uul residents came from the district health centre (27.6–47.3% elsewhere). Conclusion In Ulaanbaatar, registered CVD and hypertension morbidity is higher in densely built central khoroos with little green space and lower in the green southern khoroos. Hot and cold spots follow district boundaries, suggesting that part of the observed variation reflects differences in access to care and in registration practice.

Background: Suicide is a major global public health concern and one of the leading causes of death among adolescents. Mongolia’s suicide rate is approximately twice the global and regional averages. Suicide accounts for approximately one in four deaths among adolescents aged 15–19 years, while children and adolescents constitute a proportion of all suicide deaths in the country. Aim: To characterize the age- and sex-specific patterns of suicide deaths among children and adolescents aged 8–18 years in Mongolia from 2020 to 2024. Materials and Methods: A descriptive study was conducted using records of suicide deaths obtained from the database of the General Police Department of Mongolia. Cases involving children and adolescents aged 8–18 years registered between 2020 and 2024 were included. Descriptive statistical methods were used to analyze the distribution of cases by age, sex, and geographical location. Results: A total of 313 suicide deaths among children and adolescents aged 8–18 years were registered nationwide during 2020–2024. Of these, 67.4% occurred in rural areas and 32.6% in Ulaanbaatar. Boys accounted for 67.4% of cases, while girls accounted for 32.6%. The mean age at death was 15.15 years (SD, 2.35; range, 8–18 years). The highest number of cases was observed among adolescents aged 16–18 years. Conclusion Among the total number of deaths by suicide, the proportion of boys in late adolescence was high. Furthermore, two out of every three cases were recorded in rural areas.

Background: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 6.7 million people die annually due to air pollution caused by solid fuel use, with the majority of deaths resulting from respiratory diseases and cardiovascular conditions. In Mongolia, air pollution ranks as the fourth leading risk factor contributing to mortality, following hypertension, diabetes, and other major health risks. Although there have been numerous studies on outdoor air pollution in Mongolia, research linking indoor air pollution at the household level with the health status of residents remains limited. Aim: To compare indoor PM2.5 concentrations in households of Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan and examine their association with hypertension during the winter season. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted during November and December 2023, and January 2024, involving 240 households in Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan. Indoor PM2.5 concentrations were measured using Purple Air real-time sensors continuously for 24 hours over approximately one month. After measuring indoor air pollution, individuals aged 18–60 years living in the selected households were recruited based on specific inclusion criteria. Blood pressure was measured three times and the average value was recorded. Information on respiratory illnesses was collected through structured questionnaires. Statistical analysis was performed using STATA version 19.0. Results: A total of 241 households participated in the study, with 116 from Ulaanbaatar and 125 from Darkhan. Of the participants, 46.5% were male and 53.5% were female. In terms of housing type, 96 households (39.8%) lived in gers, 97 (40.2%) lived in stove-heated houses, and 48 (19.9%) lived in apartments. Among all participants, 66.0% (n=159) had hypertension and 34.0% (n=79) had normal blood pressure. Among participants aged over 40, 69.9–88.5% had hypertension, which is statistically significantly higher compared to younger individuals (p=0.0001). By body mass index, 75.3% (n=72) of overweight individuals and 78.4% (n=58) of obese participants had hypertension, showing a statistically significant difference compared to participants with normal weight (p=0.0001). The 24-hour average concentration of indoor PM2.5 was measured using the Purple Air device, and the levels in gers and stove-heated houses exceeded the limit set by the MNS 4585:2025 standard (37.5 µg/m³) Conclusion This study identified a relationship between environmental factors, such as air pollution and housing type, and the prevalence of hypertension. The indoor PM2.5 concentration in gers and stove-heated houses was above the standard limit, indicating a negative impact on the health of those residents. Furthermore, the high prevalence of hypertension among participants over the age of 40 and those who are overweight suggests a possible link to lifestyle and environmental conditions.

Background: Employee satisfaction in the healthcare sector has a direct impact not only on the quality of medical services, but also on workforce stability and overall organizational performance. High levels of job satisfaction are associated with improved work performance, whereas low satisfaction often leads to negative outcomes such as stress and burnout. Although studies on job satisfaction have been conducted in Mongolia, research specifically targeting healthcare workers—and identifying the key factors influencing their satisfaction—remains relatively limited. This gap provides the rationale for the present study Aim: The objective of this study is to examine job satisfaction among healthcare workers at primary and referral hospitals and to identify key factors influencing it. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted between 2022 and 2024 among 1,883 physicians, nurses, and other healthcare professionals aged 18–65 years from 11 provinces and Ulaanbaatar city, using a quantitative research approach with a cross-sectional design. Job satisfaction was assessed with a questionnaire comprising six subdomains (supportive leadership, opportunities for human resource development, professional ethics, organizational culture, quality of healthcare services, and workplace safety), rated on a three-point Likert scale. Data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 26.0. Results: The overall level of job satisfaction among participants was 77.6%. Among the subdomains, workplace safety and supportive environment scored the lowest at 71.7%, whereas the quality and safety of healthcare services scored the highest at 83.4%. The findings indicated that holding a managerial position in hospitals in Ulaanbaatar and working as a physician in primary-level hospitals were positively associated with job satisfaction (p < 0.05). Age demonstrated a statistically significant association with job satisfaction, while years of work experience showed a negative correlation, with satisfaction decreasing as tenure increased (r = −0.09, p < 0.001). The findings indicate that improving healthcare workers’ job satisfaction requires strengthening and supporting several organizational dimensions, including supportive leadership, opportunities for human resource development, organizational culture, workplace safety, and a supportive work environment Conclusion Workplace safety and support, opportunities for human resource development, and organizational culture were found to be critical determinants of employee job satisfaction. The findings suggest that job satisfaction can be enhanced by optimizing organizational support, ensuring opportunities for professional growth, and strengthening workplace safety

Background: Particulate matter in ambient air is an important risk factor for cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Accurate and appropriate air quality monitoring is therefore critical for public health. In this context, it is necessary to investigate the feasibility of using low-cost direct monitoring devices (such as PurpleAir) in outdoor environments during the winter season, particularly in urban areas where fixed monitoring stations are not available. Aim: To assess and compare the outdoor PM2.5 concentrations in Ulaanbaatar and Darkhan during the winter season. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted in the capital city of Mongolia. The data collected for 45 days during the winter season, from December 9, 2024 to February 14, 2025. Continuous low-cost sensor was collected using a light scattering device (PurpleAir Classic) at a total of 25 locations and for 24 hours. Of these, 1 location was located next to a fixed measurement point and 3 locations (Zuun 4 zam, Yarmag, Selbe) were located within 200m of the study area, and the measurement results were compared using PM2.5. We used R software for statistical analysis. Results: The average PM2.5 concentration measured at the 13 fixed monitoring sites during the study period was 65 μg/ m³, while the average from the 25 PurpleAir sensors was 88 μg/m³. Parallel measurements conducted with the PurpleAir sensors and the UB4 fixed monitoring station showed a moderate correlation (r=0.44, R²=0.22, p<0.05). The measurement results at the Zuun 4 zam, Yarmag, and Selbe locations have a moderate correlation (r=0.38, r=0.61, r=0.25). Conclusion In situations where it is not possible to measure PM2.5 particulate matter in outdoor air automatically or by conventional methods, it is possible to monitor air quality by measured by low-cost sensors.

Backgroun: Air pollution is a major global public health concern that poses serious risks to human health regardless of a country’s level of economic or technological development. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2021), nine out of ten people worldwide breathe polluted air, and air pollution is responsible for the deaths of approximately 800 people every hour and 13 people every minute. Prolonged exposure to polluted air has been linked to a wide range of chronic illnesses, including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung and bronchial cancers, asthma, and stroke. In Mongolia, air pollution reaches its highest levels during the winter months, particularly in Ulaanbaatar, where the majority of the country’s population resides. A study conducted by Enkhjargal G. (2012) reported that the concentrations of PM10 and PM2.5 in Ulaanbaatar were 7–8 times higher than the WHO recommended guidelines. In response to such challenges, many countries have increasingly adopted low-cost, direct measurement devices such as PurpleAir to monitor air quality. These devices are valued for their accessibility, network connectivity, and potential role in smart city pollution management systems. Despite their global application, there remains a lack of research in Mongolia on the use of PurpleAir sensors to measure PM2.5 concentrations and compare the results with official monitoring station data. Addressing this gap is essential for improving local air quality monitoring capacity and informing effective public health and environmental policies. Aim: Determination of PM2.5 particulate matter pollution in the outdoor environment of Ulaanbaatar city using a direct measurement device (Purple Air). Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study design was employed. Direct measurement devices (Purple Air) were installed in selected districts of central Ulaanbaatar between December 2024 and February 2025, measuring PM2.5 concentrations at two-minute intervals over 24-hour periods. All data were statistically processed and analyzed using the SPSS-26 software package. Results: The average concentration of PM2.5 particles in the air of Ulaanbaatar city in winter is 66.68 μg/m3. Compared to the districts, the highest concentration was determined in SKHD (118.58±90.22 μg/m3), while the lowest concentration was determined in KHUD (42.37±43.51 μg/m3). Compared to the days of the week, the highest concentrations were measured on Monday (76.68±71.98 μg/m³), Saturday (77.50±71.63 μg/m³), and Sunday (80.34±74.45 μg/m³). The highest concentration of PM2.5 particles occurred from 6 pm to 1 am, and the lowest concentration was measured during the day (between 2 pm and 4 pm). The highest concentration of PM2.5 was measured in December (74.22±73.45 μg/m3), while the lowest concentration was measured in February (50.25±57.44 μg/m3). Conclusion The concentration of PM2.5 in the air of Ulaanbaatar city is 1.7 times higher than the general standard and technical requirements of Mongolia in winter, and the highest concentration is in the SKHD. The highest concentration of PM2.5 occurs more often in December and at night than in the winter months.