Children face the excitement of a changing world but also encounter environmental threats to their health that were neither known nor suspected several decades ago. Children are at particular risk of exposure to pollutants that are widely dispersed in the air, water, and food. Children and adolescents are exposed to chemical, physical, and biological risks at home, in school, and elsewhere. Actions are needed to reduce these risks for children exposed to a series of environmental hazards. Exposure to a number of persistent environmental pollutants including air pollutants, endocrine disruptors, noise, electromagnetic waves (EMWs), tobacco and other noxious substances, heavy metals, and microplastics, is linked to damage to the nervous and immune systems and affects reproductive function and development. Exposure to environmental hazards is responsible for several acute and chronic diseases that have replaced infectious diseases as the principal cause of illnesses and death during childhood. Children are disproportionately exposed to environmental toxicities. Children drink more water, eat more food, and breathe more frequently than adults. As a result, children have a substantially heavier exposure to toxins present in water, food, or air than adults. In addition, their hand-to-mouth behaviors and the fact that they live and play close to the ground make them more vulnerable than adults. Children undergo rapid growth and development processes that are easily disrupted. These systems are very delicate and cannot adequately repair thetional development in children’s environmental health was the Declaration of the Environment Leaders of the Eight on Children’s Environmental Health by the Group of Eight. In 2002, the World Health Organization launched an initiative to improve children’s environmental protection effort. Here, we review major environmental pollutants and related hazards among children and adolescents.

Children face the excitement of a changing world but also encounter environmental threats to their health that were neither known nor suspected several decades ago. Children are at particular risk of exposure to pollutants that are widely dispersed in the air, water, and food. Children and adolescents are exposed to chemical, physical, and biological risks at home, in school, and elsewhere. Actions are needed to reduce these risks for children exposed to a series of environmental hazards. Exposure to a number of persistent environmental pollutants including air pollutants, endocrine disruptors, noise, electromagnetic waves (EMWs), tobacco and other noxious substances, heavy metals, and microplastics, is linked to damage to the nervous and immune systems and affects reproductive function and development. Exposure to environmental hazards is responsible for several acute and chronic diseases that have replaced infectious diseases as the principal cause of illnesses and death during childhood. Children are disproportionately exposed to environmental toxicities. Children drink more water, eat more food, and breathe more frequently than adults. As a result, children have a substantially heavier exposure to toxins present in water, food, or air than adults. In addition, their hand-to-mouth behaviors and the fact that they live and play close to the ground make them more vulnerable than adults. Children undergo rapid growth and development processes that are easily disrupted. These systems are very delicate and cannot adequately repair thetional development in children’s environmental health was the Declaration of the Environment Leaders of the Eight on Children’s Environmental Health by the Group of Eight. In 2002, the World Health Organization launched an initiative to improve children’s environmental protection effort. Here, we review major environmental pollutants and related hazards among children and adolescents.

Children face the excitement of a changing world but also encounter environmental threats to their health that were neither known nor suspected several decades ago. Children are at particular risk of exposure to pollutants that are widely dispersed in the air, water, and food. Children and adolescents are exposed to chemical, physical, and biological risks at home, in school, and elsewhere. Actions are needed to reduce these risks for children exposed to a series of environmental hazards. Exposure to a number of persistent environmental pollutants including air pollutants, endocrine disruptors, noise, electromagnetic waves (EMWs), tobacco and other noxious substances, heavy metals, and microplastics, is linked to damage to the nervous and immune systems and affects reproductive function and development. Exposure to environmental hazards is responsible for several acute and chronic diseases that have replaced infectious diseases as the principal cause of illnesses and death during childhood. Children are disproportionately exposed to environmental toxicities. Children drink more water, eat more food, and breathe more frequently than adults. As a result, children have a substantially heavier exposure to toxins present in water, food, or air than adults. In addition, their hand-to-mouth behaviors and the fact that they live and play close to the ground make them more vulnerable than adults. Children undergo rapid growth and development processes that are easily disrupted. These systems are very delicate and cannot adequately repair thetional development in children’s environmental health was the Declaration of the Environment Leaders of the Eight on Children’s Environmental Health by the Group of Eight. In 2002, the World Health Organization launched an initiative to improve children’s environmental protection effort. Here, we review major environmental pollutants and related hazards among children and adolescents.

Children face the excitement of a changing world but also encounter environmental threats to their health that were neither known nor suspected several decades ago. Children are at particular risk of exposure to pollutants that are widely dispersed in the air, water, and food. Children and adolescents are exposed to chemical, physical, and biological risks at home, in school, and elsewhere. Actions are needed to reduce these risks for children exposed to a series of environmental hazards. Exposure to a number of persistent environmental pollutants including air pollutants, endocrine disruptors, noise, electromagnetic waves (EMWs), tobacco and other noxious substances, heavy metals, and microplastics, is linked to damage to the nervous and immune systems and affects reproductive function and development. Exposure to environmental hazards is responsible for several acute and chronic diseases that have replaced infectious diseases as the principal cause of illnesses and death during childhood. Children are disproportionately exposed to environmental toxicities. Children drink more water, eat more food, and breathe more frequently than adults. As a result, children have a substantially heavier exposure to toxins present in water, food, or air than adults. In addition, their hand-to-mouth behaviors and the fact that they live and play close to the ground make them more vulnerable than adults. Children undergo rapid growth and development processes that are easily disrupted. These systems are very delicate and cannot adequately repair thetional development in children’s environmental health was the Declaration of the Environment Leaders of the Eight on Children’s Environmental Health by the Group of Eight. In 2002, the World Health Organization launched an initiative to improve children’s environmental protection effort. Here, we review major environmental pollutants and related hazards among children and adolescents.

Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) has been used for over a century and has been demonstrated to be effective in treating patients with various allergic diseases. AIT allergens can be administered through various routes, including subcutaneous, sublingual, intralymphatic, oral, or epicutaneous routes. Sublingual immunotherapy (SLIT) has recently gained clinical interest, and it is considered an alternative treatment for allergic rhinitis (AR) and asthma. This review provides an overview of the current evidence-based studies that address the use of SLIT for treating AR, including (1) mechanisms of action, (2) appropriate patient selection for SLIT, (3) the current available SLIT products in Korea, and (4) updated information on its efficacy and safety. Finally, this guideline aims to provide the clinician with practical considerations for SLIT.

Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) is a causative treatment of allergic diseases in which allergen extracts are regularly administered in a gradually escalated doses, leading to immune tolerance and consequent alleviation of allergic diseases. The need for uniform practice guidelines in AIT is continuously growing as the number of potential candidates for AIT increases and new therapeutic approaches are tried. This updated version of the Korean Academy of Asthma Allergy and Clinical Immunology recommendations for AIT, published in 2010, proposes an expert opinion by specialists in allergy, pediatrics, and otorhinolaryngology. This guideline deals with the basic knowledge of AIT, including mechanisms, clinical efficacy, allergen standardization, important allergens in Korea, and special consideration in pediatrics. The article also covers the methodological aspects of AIT, including patient selection, allergen selection, schedule and doses, follow-up care, efficacy measurements, and management of adverse reactions. Although this guideline suggests the optimal dosing schedule, an individualized approach and modifications are recommended considering the situation for each patient and clinic.

Background: This study was designed to determine the current status of diagnosis and treatment of valvular heart disease (VHD) in Korea. Methods: A nationwide registry study was conducted in 45 hospitals in Korea involving adult patients with at least moderate VHD as determined by echocardiography carried out between September and October of 2019. Of a total of 4,094 patients with at least moderate VHD, 1,482 had severe VHD (age, 71.3 ± 13.5 years; 49.1% male). Echocar‑ diographic data used for the diagnosis of each case of VHD were analyzed. Experts from each center determined the diagnosis and treatment strategy for VHD based on current guidelines and institutional policy. The clinical out‑ come was in-hospital mortality. Results: Each valve underwent surgical or transcatheter intervention in 19.3% cases of severe mitral stenosis, 31.4% cases of severe primary mitral regurgitation (MR), 7.5% cases of severe secondary MR, 43.7% cases of severe aortic stenosis, 27.5% cases of severe aortic regurgitation, and 7.2% cases of severe tricuspid regurgitation. The overall inhospital mortality rate for patients with severe VHD was 5.4%, and for secondary severe MR and severe tricuspid regur‑ gitation, the rates were 9.0% and 7.5%, respectively, indicating a poor prognosis. In-hospital mortality occurred in 73 of the 1,244 patients (5.9%) who received conservative treatment and in 18 of the 455 patients (4.0%) who received a surgical or transcatheter intervention, which was significantly lower in the intervention group (P = 0.037). Conclusions This study provides important information about the current status of VHD diagnosis and treatment through a nationwide registry in Korea and helps to define future changes.

Background: This study was designed to determine the current status of diagnosis and treatment of valvular heart disease (VHD) in Korea. Methods: A nationwide registry study was conducted in 45 hospitals in Korea involving adult patients with at least moderate VHD as determined by echocardiography carried out between September and October of 2019. Of a total of 4,094 patients with at least moderate VHD, 1,482 had severe VHD (age, 71.3 ± 13.5 years; 49.1% male). Echocar‑ diographic data used for the diagnosis of each case of VHD were analyzed. Experts from each center determined the diagnosis and treatment strategy for VHD based on current guidelines and institutional policy. The clinical out‑ come was in-hospital mortality. Results: Each valve underwent surgical or transcatheter intervention in 19.3% cases of severe mitral stenosis, 31.4% cases of severe primary mitral regurgitation (MR), 7.5% cases of severe secondary MR, 43.7% cases of severe aortic stenosis, 27.5% cases of severe aortic regurgitation, and 7.2% cases of severe tricuspid regurgitation. The overall inhospital mortality rate for patients with severe VHD was 5.4%, and for secondary severe MR and severe tricuspid regur‑ gitation, the rates were 9.0% and 7.5%, respectively, indicating a poor prognosis. In-hospital mortality occurred in 73 of the 1,244 patients (5.9%) who received conservative treatment and in 18 of the 455 patients (4.0%) who received a surgical or transcatheter intervention, which was significantly lower in the intervention group (P = 0.037). Conclusions This study provides important information about the current status of VHD diagnosis and treatment through a nationwide registry in Korea and helps to define future changes.