To study the differences in transcript levels among different organs of Spatholobus suberectus and to explore the genes encoding enzymes related to the catechin biosynthesis pathway, this study utilized the genome and full-length transcriptome data of S. suberectus as references. Transcriptome sequencing and bioinformatics analysis were performed on five different organs of S. suberectus-roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits-using the Illumina NovaSeq 6000 platform. A total of 115.28 Gb of clean data were obtained, with GC content values ranging from 45.19% to 47.54%, Q20 bases at 94.17% and above, and an overall comparison rate with the reference genome around 90%. In comparisons between the stem and root, stem and leaf, stem and flower, and stem and fruit, 10 666, 9 674, 9 320, and 5 896 differentially expressed genes(DEGs) were identified, respectively. The lowest number of DEGs was found in the stem and root comparison group. KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that the DEGs were mainly concentrated in the pathways of phytohormone signaling, phenylalanine biosynthesis, etc. A total of 39 genes were annotated in the catechin biosynthesis pathway, with at least one highly expressed gene found in all organs. Among these, PAL1, PAL2, C4H1, C4H3, 4CL1, 4CL2, and DFR2 showed high expression in the stems, suggesting that they may play important roles in the biosynthesis of flavonoids in S. suberectus. This study aims to provide important information for the in-depth exploration of the regulation of catechin biosynthesis in S. suberectus through transcriptome analysis of its different organs and to provide a reference for the further realization of S. suberectus varietal improvement and molecular breeding.
Catechin/biosynthesis* ; Gene Expression Profiling ; Gene Expression Regulation, Plant ; Plant Proteins/metabolism* ; Fabaceae/metabolism* ; Transcriptome ; Flowers/metabolism* ; Plant Stems/metabolism* ; Plant Leaves/metabolism* ; Plant Roots/metabolism* ; Fruit/metabolism*

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a bioactive polyphenol abundant in green tea, has garnered significant attention for its diverse therapeutic applications, ranging from antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects to potential anticancer properties. Despite its immense promise, the practical utilization of EGCG in therapeutic settings as a medication has been hampered by inherent limitations of this drug, including poor bioavailability, instability, and rapid degradation. This review comprehensively explores the current challenges associated with the application of EGCG and evaluates the potential of nanoparticle-based formulations in addressing these limitations. Nanoparticles, with their unique physicochemical properties, offer a platform for the enhanced stability, bioavailability, and targeted delivery of EGCG. Various nanoparticle strategies, including polymeric nanoparticle, micelle, lipid-based nanocarrier, metal nanoparticle, and silica nanoparticle, are currently employed to enhance EGCG stability and pharmacological activity. This review concludes that the particle sizes of most of these formulated nanocarriers fall within 300 nm and their encapsulation efficiency ranges from 51% to 97%. Notably, the pharmacological activities of EGCG-loaded nanoparticles, such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial effects, are significantly enhanced compared to those of free EGCG. By critically analyzing the existing literature and highlighting recent advancements, this article provides valuable insights into the promising prospects of nanoparticle-mediated EGCG formulations, paving the way for the development of more effective and clinically viable therapeutic strategies.
Animals ; Humans ; Anti-Inflammatory Agents/administration & dosage* ; Antineoplastic Agents/administration & dosage* ; Antioxidants/administration & dosage* ; Biological Availability ; Catechin/analogs & derivatives* ; Micelles ; Particle Size ; Nanoparticle Drug Delivery System/chemistry*

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a prominent plant-based catechin predominantly derived from Camellia sinensis and widely available on the market as a health supplement, has garnered significant attention for its potential therapeutic benefits, particularly in the context of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This review explores the multifaceted role of EGCG in addressing the "ominous octet"-the 8 core pathophysiological defects associated with T2DM. The literature search was carried out using key terms "EGCG" OR "epigallocatechin-3-gallate" OR "epigallocatechin gallate" AND "diabetes" OR "insulin resistance" OR "hyperglycemia" in the PubMed and Scopus databases. The search was constrained to articles published between January 2018 and April 2024, focusing on the document type. Full-text articles published in English and relevant to EGCG that featured a single active ingredient, included clearly explained diabetes relief mechanism, and included ominous octet aspects were included in the final review. The outcomes of the included studies were reviewed and categorized based on 8 core pathophysiological defects, collectively referred to as the ominous octet in T2DM. This review concludes that EGCG is a potent hypoglycemic agent that has beneficial effects against the ominous octet in addition to its pharmacological activities in modulating gut microbiota dysbiosis, carbohydrate digestion and metabolism, glucose transporter-mediated intestinal glucose-uptake, endothelial dysfunction, and renal damage that are significantly associated with pathogenesis of T2DM. This extensive scientific evidence suggests that EGCG may offer a novel approach to traditional antidiabetic therapies, potentially improving glycemic control and mitigating complications associated with T2DM. The inhibitory effects of EGCG on sodium-glucose transport proteins and their role in reducing renal glucose reabsorption remain unexplored, highlighting a significant research gap. Future research should also aim to broaden the scope by investigating the "egregious eleven," which comprise a more comprehensive range of diabetic pathophysiological features. This review underscores the therapeutic promise of EGCG for managing T2DM and encourages ongoing research to fully elucidate its clinical applications. Please cite this article as: Wong CN, Lim YM, Liew KB, Chew YL, Chua AL, Lee SK. A review on mechanistic actions of epigallocatechin-3-gallate in targeting the ominous octet of type 2 diabetes mellitus. J Integr Med. 2025; 23(4): 344-356.
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2/physiopathology* ; Humans ; Catechin/therapeutic use* ; Hypoglycemic Agents/therapeutic use* ; Animals ; Insulin Resistance

Prostate cancer is a prevalent and debilitating disease that necessitates effective prevention and treatment strategies. Green tea, a well-known beverage derived from the Camellia sinensis plant, contains bioactive compounds with potential health benefits, including catechins and polyphenols. This comprehensive review aims to explore the potential benefits of green tea in prostate cancer prevention and treatment by examining existing literature. Green tea possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic properties attributed to its catechins, particularly epigallocatechin gallate. Epidemiological studies have reported an inverse association between green tea consumption and prostate cancer risk, with potential protection against aggressive forms of the disease. Laboratory studies demonstrate that green tea components inhibit tumor growth, induce apoptosis, and modulate signaling pathways critical to prostate cancer development and progression. Clinical trials and human studies further support the potential benefits of green tea. Green tea consumption has been found to be associated with a reduction in prostate-specific antigen levels, tumor markers, and played a potential role in slowing disease progression. However, challenges remain, including optimal dosage determination, formulation standardization, and conducting large-scale, long-term clinical trials. The review suggests future research should focus on combinatorial approaches with conventional therapies and personalized medicine strategies to identify patient subgroups most likely to benefit from green tea interventions.
Humans ; Male ; Prostatic Neoplasms/drug therapy* ; Tea/chemistry* ; Catechin/pharmacology*

Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), the predominant polyphenol in green tea, exerts a spectrum of physiological activities, including antioxidant, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory effects. Emerging research underscores the significance of EGCG in modulating oocyte aging. EGCG can enhance antioxidant defenses, improve mitochondrial functions, and inhibit apoptotic pathways, thereby retarding the aging of oocytes. This review delineates the main molecular features of EGCG and expounds its regulatory mechanisms concerning oocyte aging, enriching the knowledge on the role of EGCG in the amelioration of oocyte aging.
Catechin/pharmacology* ; Oocytes/metabolism* ; Humans ; Animals ; Antioxidants/pharmacology* ; Female ; Cellular Senescence/drug effects* ; Tea/chemistry* ; Apoptosis/drug effects*

To clarify the content characteristics of the main active components and mineral elements of Cynomorium songaricum under different habitat conditions, and further explore the relationship between the quality of C. songaricum and habitats, this study took C. songaricum from 25 different habitats in China as the research object, and measured the contents of 8 main active components and 12 mineral elements separately. Diversity analysis, correlation analysis, principal component analysis and cluster analysis were carried out. The results showed that the genetic diversity of total flavonoids, ursolic acid, ether extract, potassium(K), phosphorus(P) and zinc(Zn) in C. songaricum was high. The coefficient of variation of crude polysaccharide, ether extract, gallic acid, protocatechuic aldehyde, catechin, epicatechin, calcium(Ca), sodium(Na), magnesium(Mg), sulfur(S), iron(Fe), manganese(Mn), selenium(Se) and nickel(Ni) were all over 36%, indicating that the quality of C. songaricum was significantly affected by habitats. There were strong synergistic and weak antagonistic effects among the contents of the 8 active components, and complex antagonistic and synergistic effects among the contents of the 12 mineral elements. Principal component analysis revealed that crude polysaccharide, ursolic acid, catechin, epicatechin and total flavonoids could be used as the characteristic components to evaluate the quality of C. songaricum, and Na, copper(Cu), Mn and Ni were the characteristic elements to evaluate the quality of C. songaricum. In cluster ana-lysis, the second group with the main active components as cluster center had better quality in terms of the content of active substances, and the second group with the mineral elements as cluster center had higher utilization potential in the exploitation of mineral elements. This study could provide a basis for resource evaluation and breeding of excellent varieties of C. songaricum in different habitats, and provide a reference for cultivation and identification of C. songaricum.
Cynomorium ; Catechin ; Plant Breeding ; Selenium ; Ethers ; Ethyl Ethers ; Flavonoids ; Plant Extracts

The present study investigated the chemical constituents from the leaves of Craibiodendron yunnanense. The compounds were isolated and purified from the leaves of C. yunnanense by a combination of various chromatographic techniques including column chromatography over polyamide, silica gel, Sephadex LH-20, and reversed-phase HPLC. Their structures were identified by extensive spectroscopic analyses including MS and NMR data. As a result, 10 compounds, including melionoside F(1), meliosmaionol D(2), naringenin(3), quercetin-3-O-α-L-arabinopyranoside(4), epicatechin(5), quercetin-3'-glucoside(6), corbulain Ib(7), loliolide(8), asiatic acid(9), and ursolic acid(10), were isolated. Compounds 1 and 2 were two new compounds, and compound 7 was isolated from this genus for the first time. All compounds showed no significant cytotoxic activity by MTT assay.
Quercetin ; Ericaceae ; Plant Leaves ; Catechin ; Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid

To explore the changes and the reaction mechanisms between soil microecological environment and the content of secon-dary metabolites of plants under water deficit, this study carried out a pot experiment on the 3-leaf stage seedlings of Rheum officinale to analyze their response mechanism under different drought gradients(normal water supply, mild, moderate, and severe drought). The results indicated that the content of flavonoids, phenols, terpenoids, and alkaloids in the root of R. officinale varied greatly under drought stresses. Under mild drought stress, the content of substances mentioned above was comparatively high, and the content of rutin, emodin, gallic acid, and(+)-catechin hydrate in the root significantly increased. The content of rutin, emodin, and gallic acid under severe drought stress was significantly lower than that under normal water supply. The number of species, Shannon diversity index, richness index, and Simpson index of bacteria in the rhizosphere soil were significantly higher than those in blank soil, and the number of microbial species and richness index decreased significantly with the aggravation of drought stresses. In the context of water deficit, Cyanophyta, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Chloroflexi, Gemmatimonadetes, Streptomyces, and Actinomyces were the dominant bacteria in the rhizosphere of R. officinale. The relative content of rutin and emodin in the root of R. officinale was positively correlated with the relative abundance of Cyanophyta and Firmicutes, and the relative content of(+)-catechin hydrate and(-)-epicatechin gallate was positively correlated with the relative abundance of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes. In conclusion, appropriate drought stress can increase the content of secondary metabolites of R. officinale from physiological induction and the increase in the association with beneficial microbe.
Rhizosphere ; Rheum ; Droughts ; Soil ; Catechin ; Emodin ; Bacteria/metabolism* ; Water/metabolism* ; Firmicutes ; Soil Microbiology

This paper aimed to study the chemical constituents from the root bark of Schisandra sphenanthera. Silica, Sephadex LH-20 and RP-HPLC were used to separate and purify the 80% ethanol extract of S. sphenanthera. Eleven compounds were identified by ~1H-NMR, ~(13)C-NMR, ESI-MS, etc., which were 2-[2-hydroxy-5-(3-hydroxypropyl)-3-methoxyphenyl]-propane-1,3-diol(1), threo-7-methoxyguaiacylglycerol(2),4-O-(2-hydroxy-1-hydroxymethylethyl)-dihydroconiferylalcohol(3), morusin(4), sanggenol A(5), sanggenon I(6), sanggenon N(7), leachianone G(8),(+)-catechin(9), epicatechin(10), and 7,4'-dimethoxyisoflavone(11). Among them, compound 1 was a new compound, and compounds 2-9 were isolated from S. sphenanthera for the first time. Compounds 2-11 were subjected to cell viability assay, and the results revealed that compounds 4 and 5 had potential cytotoxicity, and compound 4 also had potential antiviral activity.
Schisandra ; Plant Bark ; Antiviral Agents ; Biological Assay ; Catechin ; Phenols

Xanthoceras sorbifolium seeds have a wide range of applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries. To compare and analyze the chemical compositions of different parts of X. sorbifolium seeds and explore the potential value and research prospects of non-medicinal parts, this study used ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole Orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry(UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS) to detect the chemical composition of various parts of the seeds. A total of 82 components were preliminary identified from X. sorbifolium seeds, including 5 amino acids, 4 polyphenols, 3 phenylpropionic acids, 7 organic acids, 15 flavonoids, 6 glycosides, and 23 saponins. Mass spectrometry molecular networking(MN) analysis was conducted on the results from different parts of the seeds, revealing significant differences in the components of the seed kernel, seed coat, and seed shell. The saponins and flavonoids in the seed kernel were superior in terms of variety and content to those in the seed coat and shell. Based on the chromatographic peaks of different parts from multiple batches of samples, multivariate statistical analysis was carried out. Four differential components were determined using HPLC, and the average content of these components in the seed kernel, seed coat, and seed shell were as follows: 0.183 6, 0.887 4, and 1.440 1 mg·g~(-1) for fraxin; 0.035 8, 0.124 1, and 0.044 5 mg·g~(-1) for catechin; 0.032 9, 0.072 0, and 0.221 5 mg·g~(-1) for fraxetin; 0.435 9, 2.114 7, and 0.259 7 mg·g~(-1) for epicatechin. The results showed that catechin and fraxetin had relatively low content in all parts, while fraxin had higher content in the seed coat and seed shell, and epicatechin had higher content in the seed kernel and seed coat. Therefore, the seed coat and seed shell possess certain development value. This study provides rapid analysis and comparison of the chemical compositions of different parts of X. sorbifolium seeds, which offers an experimental basis for the research and clinical application of medicinal substances in X. sorbifolium seeds.
Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid/methods* ; Catechin/analysis* ; Flavonoids/analysis* ; Seeds/chemistry* ; Saponins/analysis*