Human echinococcosis is a zoonotic disease (a disease that is transmitted to humans from animals) that is caused by parasites, namely tapeworms of the genus Echinococcus. A number of herbivorous and omnivorous animals act as intermediate hosts of Echinococcus. They become infected by ingesting the parasite eggs in contaminated food and water, and the parasite then develops into larval stages in the viscera. Alveolar echinococcosis usually occurs in a wildlife cycle between foxes or other carnivores with small mammals (mostly rodents) acting as intermediate hosts. Domesticated dogs and cats can also act as definitive hosts. Human infection with E. granulosus leads to the development of one or more hydatid cysts located most often in the liver and lungs, and less frequently in the bones, kidneys, spleen, muscles and central nervous system. In endemic regions, human incidence rates for cystic echinococcosis can reach more than 50 per 100 000 person-years, and prevalence levels as high as 5%–10% may occur in parts of Argentina, Peru, East Africa, Central Asia and China. In livestock, the prevalence of cystic echinococcosis found in slaughterhouses in hyperendemic areas of South America varies from 20%–95% of slaughtered animals. The highest prevalence is found in rural areas where older animals are slaughtered. Depending on the infected species involved, livestock production losses attributable to cystic echinococcosis result from liver condemnation and may also involve reduction in carcass weight, decrease in hide value, decrease of milk production, and reduced fertility. Ultrasonography imaging is the technique of choice for the diagnosis of both cystic echinococcosis and alveolar echinococcosis in humans. This technique is usually complemented or validated by computed tomography (CT) and/or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. The choice must primarily be based on the ultrasound images of the cyst, following a stage-specific approach, and also on the medical infrastructure and human resources available. Worldwide, there may be in excess of 1 million people living with these diseases at any one time. Many of these people will be experiencing severe clinical syndromes which are life-threatening if left untreated. Even with treatment, people often face reduced quality of life. For cystic echinococcosis, there is an average of 2.2% post-operative death rate for surgical patients and about 6.5% of cases relapse after an intervention, thereby requiring prolonged recovery time.

Perinatal mortality, which includes stillbirths after 22 weeks of gestation and neonatal deaths within seven days after birth, varies widely across countries. Developed nations report rates below 10 per 1,000 births, while developing countries often exceed 50. In 2022, Mongolia reported a rate of 13.2, higher than in developed nations but showing improvement. Urbanization influences perinatal mortality through factors such as air pollution, limited healthcare access, and socioeconomic inequality. In Ulaanbaatar, severe winter air pollution increases the risks of preterm birth, low birth weight, and stillbirth. In contrast, rural areas face barriers including poor access to maternal care and transportation delays. Strengthening prenatal care, neonatal services, and ensuring the safe use of medications during pregnancy are critical to reducing perinatal deaths. This literature review, based on 50 domestic and international literature sources, provides an in-depth examination of how urbanization affects perinatal mortality.

An electronic cigarette (e-cigarette or vape) is a device designed to deliver nicotine and other chemicals to the lungs in the form of an aerosol. First invented in 2003, it was initially promoted as a safer alternative to traditional cigarettes. However, research has shown that e-cigarettes pose significant health risks.
The main components of e-cigarette liquids include propylene glycol, vegetable glycerin, flavorings, and usually nicotine. Nicotine is a highly addictive substance that affects the central nervous system and has harmful effects on the brain, cardiovascular system, and mental health. Usage among adolescents and women is rapidly increasing, raising serious public health concerns.
E-cigarettes negatively affect the respiratory, cardiovascular, and digestive systems. They can cause lung inflammation, heart dysfunction, oral diseases, and gastrointestinal issues. Long-term use increases the risk of cancer and chronic diseases.
Several factors contribute to the widespread use of e-cigarettes, especially among youth. These include peer influence, lack of awareness about health risks, appealing flavors, and easy accessibility. Therefore, preventive education and targeted interventions for young people are urgently needed. It is need to study the e cigarette consumption among youth and produce evidence for urgent and clear policy making. In that reason we are introducing a literature review using more than 50 sources published in various countries.

Liver disease accounts for approximately 2 million deaths per year worldwide and is responsible for 4% of all deaths. Acute hepatitis accounts for a smaller amount of mortality, with complications from cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases being the main causes of death. It is mostly brought on by nonalcoholic liver disease, alcohol abuse, infections (chronic hepatitis B and C viruses), and air pollution.
In the last 10 years, the number of deaths caused by hepatocellular carcinoma has been continuously increasing in Mongolia, and it ranks first in the world in terms of deaths caused by hepatocellular carcinoma per 100,000 population, which is 8 times higher than the world average.
Mongolia is one of the most polluted countries in the world. Globally it is estimated that 9 out of 10 breathe polluted air and about 7 million deaths are attributed to air pollution. Studies on epidemiology have found an association between ambient air pollution and some liver diseases, including cirrhosis, liver cancer, and fatty liver disease related to metabolic disorders. This is an issue with global health.
Exposure to PM2.5 is linked to the development of inflammation, which may be a major risk factor in the advancement of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. According to the literature review, exposure to PM is associated with systemic inflammation, a rise in plasma triglycerides, LDL and VLDL, pro inflammatory cytokines, and insulin resistance.
Many epidemiological and ecological studies were done in Mongolia on air pollution and health. However, it is still not clear how much ambient air pollution can cause cirrhosis and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease incidence in Mongolia.

: According to the elemental analysis survey, it is confirmed that the content of silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al) in coarse particles in the ambient air of Erdenet city is the highest (2457 ng/cm2, 1061.72 ng/cm2), and the content of black carbon (BC) is the highest (2699.9 ng/cm2) for the fine particles, respectively. In Orkhon Aimag, 221 new cancer cases were registered in 2023, 20.8 per 10,000 population, and 123 deaths were registered, which decreased by 20 cases from the previous year. Stomach, lung, and oesophageal cancers are the most common. Among the leading causes of diseases, diseases of the respiratory system are led by its prevalence rate of 1536 per 10,000 population, followed by the diseases of the digestive system prevalence rate of 821 per 10,000. Goal: To review the epidemiological tendency of diseases registered in Orkhon aimag between 2006 and 2022. Materials and Methods: The secondary data on outpatient 2006-2022 of Orkhon aimag was collected and analysed. All disease data followed the X International Classification of Diseases classification. The Ethical permission was obtained from the Ethical Committee at the Ach Medical University. All personnel information-related data was removed and no any name and location of personnel data was mentioned in the survey result. Results: In Orkhon Aimag, 524,927 cases of diseases were registered in 2006-2022. Respiratory system diseases were 29.82 percent of total diseases, digestive system diseases were 16.58 percent, genitourinary system diseases were 11.28 percent, cardiovascular system diseases were 10.45 percent, and skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases were 8.38 percent. Chronic heart diseases of rheumatic origin were registered for 11.59 percent of the population aged 50-54, hypertension diseases were registered 12.41 percent, and a steady increase was observed in the age of 20-54. Conclusions
1. When studying the structure of diseases among the population of Orkhon aimag, the respiratory, digestive, and genitourinary system, circulatory system and diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue are the first five leading causes of diseases and consisted 76.95% of the total number of diseases. In the study of analyzing the diseases of the circulatory system by age group and diagnosis, cases of ischemic heart disease and high blood pressure are found among children aged 15-19 years. CVD are more common among the population aged 40-54.
2. There is a tendency that skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases to be on the rise among the population.

Radon is a radioactive gas that has no smell, colour or taste. Radon is produced from the natural radioactive decay of uranium, which is found in all rocks and soils. Radon can also be found in water. Outdoors, radon quickly dilutes to very low concentrations and is generally not a problem. The average outdoor radon level varies from 5 Bq/m³ to 15 Bq/m³. However, radon concentrations are higher indoors and in areas with minimal ventilation, with highest levels found in places like mines, caves and water treatment facilities. In buildings such as homes, schools, offices, radon levels can vary substantially from 10 Bq/m³ to more than 10 000 Bq/m³.
The effects of residential radon on human health have been studied worldwide since the 1980s. In addition, studies conducted in Europe, North America, and China have proven that even radon levels in dwellings below the acceptable level can pose long-term risks to residents health and contribute to the development of lung cancer. Relying upon the average level of radon and the prevalence of cigarette smoking in the country, radon causes 3-14% of the total incidence of lung cancer. An increase of 100 Bq/m 3 in long time average radon concentration increases the risk of lung cancer by approximately 16%, which is considered that there is a linear relationship between radon concentration and lung cancer.

Psoriasis is a chronic, inflammatory, and hyperproliferative skin disease associated with the immune system and genetics. The prevalence of the disease varies depending on the study methodology, type of measure, study size, age group, case definition, and sampling techniques. Globally, psoriasis affects approximately 0.91% to 8.5% of adults and 0% to 2.1% of children. Among the risk factors, smoking and obesity have a more negative impact than alcohol and tobacco use, diet, physical inactivity, infections, drugs, and mental disorders. Psoriasis can occur at any age, and when it appears before age 30, it is defined as type I. There is a familial aggregation of the disease; the HLA-Cw6, B57, and B31 alleles and HLA-Cw2 have been observed in patients with psoriasis type I.

Background: Air pollution significantly impacts population health, particularly by contributing to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, which are among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. Health effects attributable to long-term exposure to PM2.5 include ischemic heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lower-respiratory infections (such as pneumonia), stroke, type 2 diabetes, and adverse birth outcomes. Objective: The study aimed to identify the short-term impact of PM on human health and to estimate the disease burden from the mortality associated with ambient air pollution. Materials and Methods: Daily data for air quality in Ulaanbaatar and cardiovascular disease (CVD) and respiratory system disease (RSD) data for the period of 2008-2017 were used in the study. This is a time-series crossover study estimated the effects of short-term exposure to main air pollutants PM2.5 and PM10 on the selected 2 diseases RSD (pneumonia, COPD) and CVD (ischemic heart disease and cerebrovascular disease). Statistical analysis were conducted by the SPSS-21 and STATA 12 programs to determine the correlation between disease and pollution and confirmed by appropriate parametric and non-parametric tests. Results: The 24-hour average concentration of PM10 in the cold season was 226.77 µg/m3. The 24-hour average РМ2.5 concentration in the cold season was by 3.9 times higher than in the warm season, 2.3 times higher than the national standard level, and 8.6 times higher than the WHO Air quality guidelines value. Whereas, the concentration of PM10 was 2.4 times higher than in the warm season, 3.6 times higher than the national standard level, and 9.1 times higher than the WHO recommended value. Trend analysis of the average annual concentration of pollutants revealed that PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations decreased by 33.1%-46.2%, while the concentration of SO2 and NO2 had increased by 20.5-36.8%. Furthermore, all lags of all pollutants had a significant correlation with pneumonia and other chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (p<0.001)). Statistically significant associations were also found for all air pollutants such as PM10 and PM2.5 in all lags with RSD and CVD admission in the cold season. Conclusion Concentrations of ambient air pollutants and some meteorological factors have a direct correlation with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and associated mortality. Reducing the number of primary air pollutants by 10 units would most likely reduce hospital admission by 0.1-9.8% and mortality by 0.1-9.5%.

Background: A 2023 study by the United Nations University's Institute for Water, Environment and Health concluded that 72 percent of the world's population faces water supply issues, and 8.0 percent are experiencing severe water shortages. Mongolia has received 60 points out of a possible 100 points, and was defined as a country that is unreliable in terms of clean water supply and may face water shortages in the future. A survey of global water security has been conducted. The organization, which has research institutes in 12 countries, compared and ranked 14 indicators of 186 countries, including clean drinking water supply, sanitation, population health, water quality, freshwater resources, water resource sustainability, and governance related to water management. Mongolia scored the highest possible score of 10 out of 14 basic indicators for water availability. However, in terms of water treatment and reuse and water supply sustainability, the indicator of water storage scored the worst, 2 points. Also, Mongolia is weak in terms of governance related to water management, vulnerable to flood risks, and weak against flood disasters in terms of economy and infrastructure. It is concluded that due to the flood disaster, there could be an economic crisis at the national level.
According to WHO statistics in 2019, the mortality rate among the population of Mongolia due to unsafe drinking water and unsanitary facilitation is 3.2 per 100,000 people. It is 15.0 lower than the global average (18.2) and 13.8 percent lower than the average of Asian countries (17.0). According to 2022 Mongolian health statistics, the national average mortality rate due to unsafe drinking water and unsanitary facilities is 16.5 per 100,000 population. Compared to 2014, there was an increase in mortality per 100,000 people at the national and provincial levels. In Ulaanbaatar, which is the center of the total population, the mortality rate increased from 13.3 in 2014 to 16.2 in 2018 and to 23.2 in 2022. In the provinces, as of 2022, it is 10.7, or 12.5 less than Ulaanbaatar. Mongolia has two main types of water supply: centralized and decentralized, 47.9 percent of the total households in Mongolia (n=941,541) live in a fully equipped apartment with centralized and independent utility system. Drinking water service: The WHO-UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program on Water, Sanitation and Hygiene provides international comparisons of progress estimates in the area of WASH and undertakes global monitoring of the associated Sustainable Development Goals. The monitoring program has produced a report based on national and other estimates on the progress made in the water, sanitation and hygiene sector of the countries of the world for 2000-2022. Below are the figures and facts related to Mongolia included in that report. 84.0% of Mongolia's population (n=2,838,017) have access to basic drinking water services as of 2022.
• 39.0% (n=1,334,883) are directly supplied with drinking water from a safe or qualified source of drinking water;
• 44.0% (n=1,503,134) have access to drinking water less than 30 minutes from a basic or qualified source;
• 5.0% of the population (n=173,237) use surface water or water from rivers, lakes and ponds directly for their drinking water needs Sanitary facilities: As of 2022, 66.0% of Mongolia's population have safe sanitation facilities, of which 70.0% of the population in urban areas and 56.0% in rural areas. Although 25% of the rural population used to defecate in the open in 2015, it decreased by 15% in 2022, but 162,972 people still defecate in the open. In 2022, 0.35% meaning 44,066 of the total household population defecate in the open in rural areas. 76.0% of Mongolia's population has access to handwashing soap and water or basic services at home, and 14.0% has limited access to services (limited access to sinks, soap, and water at the household level). 74% of schools in Mongolia are provided with basic drinking water services. 85% of urban schools and 73% in rural areas are provided with drinking water. The study found that 25% of rural educational institutions spend more than 30 minutes getting drinking water from limited or qualified drinking water sources, and 2% have no drinking water. 70% of urban schools and 18% of rural schools have access to basic sanitation facilities. 18% of rural schools have limited services and 24% have no sanitation facilities. 30% of urban schools have limited sanitation facilities.
As of 2010, 43.5% of the households living at home share the toilet with others, 30.7% use it alone, 25.8% do not have their own toilet, 56.5% of the households pour their waste water into the well, and 43.5% of the households that pour it into the open. Solutions for sanitary facilities have been developed and standards for pit toilets and sinks have been developed and approved. The above 4 types of pit toilets are included in the standard. Hygiene 41% of schools in Mongolia have adequate access to basic hand washing facilities. 53.0% of schools in urban areas and 35.0% in rural areas have access to basic hand washing facilities. 41.0% of rural schools have limited access to sinks, soap, or water for students to wash their hands whenever they get dirty, and 24.0% have no hand washing facilities, or schools do not have handwashing sinks or have no water. 13.0% of urban schools do not have hand washing facilities. Before the pandemic (2020) and in 2022, when the epidemic level will decrease in Mongolia, the knowledge, attitudes and practices of the population about the pandemic have been studied. 83.2 percent (95%CI: 81.5-84.9) of participants reported a change in hand washing frequency. Also, 39.1 percent (95%CI: 37.1-41.2) wash their hands in the correct order, 53.2 percent (95%CI: 51.0-55.5) use soap frequently, and 33.5 percent (95%CI: 31.4-35.8) wash their hands 20 times a day. seconds, but about 9.9% (95%CI: 8.5-11.1) answered that there was no change in hand washing practices.

Background: Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the parasite Toxoplasma gondii. Cats are the reservoir of the parasite. Humans can become infected either by ingesting the cysts (by direct contact with cats or through food or water contaminated by cat faeces) or by eating poorly cooked meat containing cysts. We aimed to study on knowledge, attitude, risk of Toxoplasmosis among herder in Khovd province. Materials and Methods:
<b>Study methods: b>The study used a descriptive cross-sectional design and included herders from Bulgan, Buyant, Darvi, Zereg, Myangad, Khovd, Erdeneburen, Jargalant soum, which have the largest livestock number in Khovd province. A questionnaire was administered to determine the knowledge, attitudes, and risk factors for toxoplasmosis among herders. Study ethics: Before starting the study, the methodology was discussed at a meeting of the Ethics Committee of “Ach” University of Applied Sciences, and the research (Resolution No. 23/02) was approved. Data processing: The data collected during the study were coded into Microsoft Office Excel and a database (file) was created. Open Epi Info and SPSS 20 were used to statistically process the results of the study (mean, standard deviation, relative risk). Result: In result, 180 herder’s average age was 48.1±17.8 years old, most of them were female. Most of herder were herding their livestock over six years. During their herding period, 31% of herder household has registered rabies, anthrax, brucellosis, swine fever, blood infection, blindness, smallpox, horse pox, scabies, foot and mouth disease among their livestock. By questionnaire, toxoplasmosis has not registered among livestock. When assessing self protection practices when dealing with suspected infected animals, 14-22.3% use masks and aprons when dealing with sick animals, 1.4-3% use goggles, coveralls, and disinfectants, and the lowest percentage is 0.2% of gloves. This indicates a very high risk of transmission of zoonotic diseases among herder of Khovd province. Conclusion In our study, although no cases of toxoplasmosis were recorded among livestock in the soums of the Khovd province by questionarie, the lack of self-protection practices and attitudes against animal-to-human transmission and the high risk of infection indicate the importance of disseminating information and organizing training on zoonotic diseases