Background Sumpa mkhanpo Ye shes dpal ’byor (1704-1788) was a prominent scholar in 18th-century Mongolian medicine, culture, and thought, who developed a comprehensive philosophy integrating the harmony of body, mind, and spirit. His four clinical works, written between 1751 and 1785 and later known as the Four Medicinal Elixirs, addressed not only diseases but also human beauty, ethics, hygiene, and physical well-being, reflecting a concept of “inner aesthetics.” Ye shes dpal ’byor regarded external features such as appearance, scent, hair, and voice as inseparably linked to the balance of internal organs, psychological and intellectual states, and hygienic practices, in accordance with the Tibetan medical theory of the three humours. He viewed cosmetic treatments not merely as enhancements of physical appearance but as practices supporting psychological health, social awareness, and moral development. He emphasised the holistic care of children from early life, detailing methods to improve complexion, cultivate intelligence, assign meaningful names, and reinforce virtues, illustrating his systematic approach to human development. Furthermore, his work The White Dew of Medicinal Elixir documents surgical correction of cleft lips in children, representing the earliest written record of cosmetic surgery in Mongolia and demonstrating a creative integration of Chinese medical knowledge with local medicinal resources and practices. Thus, Sumpa mkhanpo Ye shes dpal ’byor uniquely combined knowledge of aesthetics and clinical medicine, implementing innovative concepts in Mongolian traditional medicine. His approach linked beauty treatments with personal value, mental health, social conscience, and ethical cultivation, grounded in a philosophy of the “unity of body, speech, and mind,” and established a framework for integrating health, aesthetics, morality, and quality of life in Mongolian medical thought.

Background: Traditional Mongolian Medicine (TMM) is a unique repository of knowledge developed through the integration of Indian Ayurveda, Tibetan medical theories, and various therapeutic methods from Chinese medicine. Scholars emphasize that the "Ashtanga Hridayam Samhita," a foundational Ayurvedic text, played a pivotal role in the formation of the "Four Medical Tantras" (FMT), which serves as the ideological basis for both Tibetan and Mongolian medicine. Although historians such as B. Jigmed, Sh. Bold, and Ya. Ganbayar have explored the general historical development of TMM, there remains a significant gap in intertextual comparative research regarding how Ayurvedic surgical concepts were localized and adapted within the Mongolian context. Thus, identifying the Ayurvedic surgical traditions reflected in the works of prominent Mongolian scholars, such as Sumbe Khamba Ishbaljir and Mindol Nomun Khan Jambalchoijidanzanperinlei, is essential for a deeper understanding of the historical evolution of TMM. Aim: The purpose of this study is to analyze the reflection of Ayurvedic concepts—specifically disease taxonomy and surgical traditions—within selected sources of TMM and to determine the patterns of how Mongolian physicians adopted and enriched these practices in their clinical applications. Materials and Method: The study utilized the Sushruta Samhita (English ed., 1907) and Ashtanga Hridayam Samhita as primary Ayurvedic references, alongside Mongolian historical sources, including Sumbe Khamba Ishbaljir’s Four Medical Tantras (1994 edition) and Mindol Nomun Khan’s Ocean of Instructions (2014 edition). Research methods included thematic analysis, content analysis, and comparative source studies. Furthermore, systematic coding methods adapted for historical source research were employed to efficiently condense the extensive information within the materials. Results: Content and thematic analysis of the selected sources identified 28 distinct types of surgical diseases categorized based on Ayurvedic methodology. These include physical trauma, systemic disorders, and various infectious and dermatological conditions. In Sumbe Khamba Ishbaljir's White Parasol of Healing, infectious diseases accounted for 42.8% and physical injuries for 23.8% of these surgical cases, while in the Ocean of Instructions, infectious diseases represented 47.05% and injuries 24.0%. Across both sources, the "Treatment" code appeared with the highest frequency (n=22–25), demonstrating that Mongolian scholars prioritized the inheritance of practical surgical instructions over theoretical abstraction. In terms of practical application, the use of complex ointments consisting of over 15 ingredients, such as pearls, coral, and ivory, for treating weapon wounds aligns with Ayurvedic pharmacological theories. Additionally, unique methods such as diagnosing "Brain Displacement" through string measurement and extracting embedded foreign objects (metal or wood) using leopard gall and ivory confirm that Ayurvedic surgical tactics were localized and enriched within the Mongolian medical tradition. Conclusion The study concludes that the principles of Ayurvedic surgical and disease taxonomy were not merely copied into Mongolian sources but were systematically adapted to the Mongolian climate and lifestyle. Mongolian scholars, including Sumbe Khamba Ishbaljir, enriched the Ayurvedic Shalya Tantra (Surgical Science) with practical techniques and unique medicinal compositions for managing infectious wounds and trauma, thereby defining the independent developmental trajectory of surgery within Traditional Mongolian Medicine.

Background: Medicines with unique healing methods and European medical treatments and services, which have been used around the world to this day, are now being used in a combined form in the healthcare services of many countries, and the possibility of integrating them is a widely discussed issue among researchers. It is noteworthy that no independent research has yet been published that has analyzed in detail how the influence of Chinese and other medical schools has been reflected in the development of Traditional Mongolian medicine. It is considered important to analyze this issue individually, in each direction, to clarify the historical process of how Traditional Mongolian medicine was formed today. Aim: Conduct research within specific codes in the works of Mongolian doctors to identify the presence of Chinese medical data, knowledge, and information. Materials and Methods: The research was conducted using a qualitative research method based on historical and source books. Our study employed content and thematic analysis, utilizing coding and the identification of recurring patterns in the source text. Results: The results of the coding study show that most of the data used from Chinese meicines falls under the code “infection”. In Sumbe Khamba Ishbaljir’s sourcebook, 42.8% of the information was coded as infection, in Tsakhar Gevsh Luvsanchultemi’s sourcebook 50%, in Mindol Khutagt Jambalchoyjidanzanperenle’s sourcebook 47.05%, and in Ishdanzanvanjil’s “Shuren Chimeg” 87.5% was coded as infection. After that, when the information included in the code “injury” is classified by each sourcebooks, 33.3% is found in Ishbaljir’s sourcebook, 0% in Luvsanchultem, 24% in Min dol Khutagt Jambalchoyjidanzanperenley, and 6.25% in Ishdanzanvanjil, which ranks second among all codes. Conclusion 1. According to the research results, 56.66% of the Chinese medical information in the above works is related to infection cases. 2. The integration of Chinese medicine learning with Traditional Mongolian medicine methods during epidemics such as “Bodoo” may be a major influencing factor that has shaped the current integrative medicine process.

Background: Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains one of the leading causes of cancer-related mortality worldwide and in Mongolia. Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) are two major etiological factors contributing to the rising burden of HCC, each presenting distinct clinical and pathological characteristics. Aim: To compare the clinical, pathological, and survival characteristics of patients with ALD-related HCC and MASH-related HCC who underwent liver resection. Material and Methods: A retrospective cohort study was conducted using clinical and pathological data from 980 patients who underwent liver resection between 2010 and 2024. Among them, 191 were categorized into the ALD group and 789 into the MASH group. Clinical parameters, laboratory findings, tumor pathology (size, grade, fibrosis stage, vascular invasion), recurrence, and overall survival (OS) were analyzed. A simulated Kaplan–Meier survival curve was generated based on group-level survival estimates. Results: Patients with ALD were significantly younger and predominantly male compared with those in the MASH group (p=0.0014; p<0.0001). The MASH group demonstrated more aggressive pathological features, including larger tumors (>5 cm), poorer differentiation (G3–4), advanced T4 stage, and a higher rate of large-vessel invasion (all p<0.05). Despite these findings, the MASH group showed a longer mean overall survival (92.6 months) than the ALD group (82.0 months; p=0.0206). Conclusion Although MASH exhibits more aggressive pathological features compared with ALD, patients in the MASH group demonstrated better overall survival. These findings underscore the importance of incorporating etiological differences into the diagnostic, therapeutic, and postoperative management strategies for HCC.