This study explored the potential therapeutic targets and mechanisms of Danggui Shaoyao San(DSS) in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease(AD) through transcriptomics and metabolomics, combined with animal experiments. Fifty male C57BL/6J mice, aged seven weeks, were randomly divided into the following five groups: control, model, positive drug, low-dose DSS, and high-dose DSS groups. After the intervention, the Morris water maze was used to assess learning and memory abilities of mice, and Nissl staining and hematoxylin-eosin(HE) staining were performed to observe pathological changes in the hippocampal tissue. Transcriptomics and metabolomics were employed to sequence brain tissue and identify differential metabolites, analyzing key genes and metabolites related to disease progression. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction(RT-qPCR) was employed to validate the expression of key genes. The Morris water maze results indicated that DSS significantly improved learning and cognitive function in scopolamine(SCOP)-induced model mice, with the high-dose DSS group showing the best results. Pathological staining showed that DSS effectively reduced hippocampal neuronal damage, increased Nissl body numbers, and reduced nuclear pyknosis and neuronal loss. Transcriptomics identified seven key genes, including neurexin 1(Nrxn1) and sodium voltage-gated channel α subunit 1(Scn1a), and metabolomics revealed 113 differential metabolites, all of which were closely associated with synaptic function, oxidative stress, and metabolic regulation. RT-qPCR experiments confirmed that the expression of these seven key genes was consistent with the transcriptomics results. This study suggests that DSS significantly improves learning and memory in SCOP model mice and alleviates hippocampal neuronal pathological damage. The mechanisms likely involve the modulation of synaptic function, reduction of oxidative stress, and metabolic balance, with these seven key genes serving as important targets for DSS in the treatment of AD.
Animals ; Alzheimer Disease/genetics* ; Male ; Drugs, Chinese Herbal/administration & dosage* ; Mice ; Mice, Inbred C57BL ; Metabolomics ; Transcriptome/drug effects* ; Maze Learning/drug effects* ; Hippocampus/metabolism* ; Humans ; Disease Models, Animal ; Memory/drug effects*

Based on the traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) theory of "kidney-brain interaction", a two-sample Mendelian randomization(MR) analysis was conducted to investigate the causal effects of chronic kidney disease(CKD) on Alzheimer's disease(AD) and analyze the potential mechanisms of kidney-tonifying and essence-replenishing TCM to improve AD. From the perspective that CKD is closely related to the core pathogenesis of AD, namely "kidney deficiency, essence loss, and marrow reduction", genome-wide association study(GWAS) data was used, with the inverse variance weighting(IVW) method as the main approach to reveal the causal association between CKD and AD. Sensitivity analysis was conducted to evaluate the robustness of the results. To further investigate the causal effects of CKD on AD, two different AD datasets were used as outcomes, and the urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio(UACR) data was used as the exposure for a supplementary analysis. On this basis, the modern scientific mechanism of the kidney-tonifying and essence-replenishing method for improving AD was further explored. The IVW analysis show that CKD(ieu-b-2: OR=1.084, 95%CI[1.011, 1.163], P=0.024; ieu-b-5067: OR=1.001, 95%CI[1.000, 1.001], P=0.002) and UACR(ieu-b-2: OR=1.247, 95%CI[1.021, 1.522], P=0.031; ieu-b-5067: OR=1.001, 95%CI[1.000, 1.003], P=0.015) both have significant causal effects on AD in different datasets, with CKD increasing the risk of AD. The sensitivity analysis further confirmed the reliability of the results. Genetic studies have shown that CKD has a significant causal effect on AD, suggesting that controlling CKD is an important intervention measure for preventing and treating AD. Therefore, further research on CKD's role in AD is crucial in clinical practice. The research enriches the theoretical implication of "kidney-brain interaction", deepens the understanding of AD' etiology, and provides further insights and directions for the prevention and treatment of AD with TCM, specifically from a kidney-based perspective.
Humans ; Alzheimer Disease/genetics* ; Renal Insufficiency, Chronic/genetics* ; Kidney/metabolism* ; Brain/physiopathology* ; Genome-Wide Association Study ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Mendelian Randomization Analysis

This study aimed to investigate the effects of caffeoylquinic acids from Erigeron breviscapus(EBCQA) on cognitive impairment and mitochondrial dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease(AD), and to explore its underlying mechanisms. The impacts of EBCQA on paralysis, β-amyloid(Aβ) oligomerization, and mRNA expression of mitophagy-related genes [PTEN-induced putative kinase 1(PINK1) homolog-encoding gene pink-1, Parkin homolog-encoding gene pdr-1, Bcl-2 interacting coiled-coil protein 1(Beclin 1) homolog-encoding gene bec-1, microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3(LC3) homolog-encoding gene lgg-1, autophagic adapter protein 62(p62) homolog-encoding gene sqst-1] were examined in the AD Caenorhabditis elegans CL4176 model, along with mitochondrial functions including adenosine triphosphate(ATP) content, enzyme activities of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes Ⅰ,Ⅲ, and Ⅳ, and mitochondrial membrane potential. Additionally, the effects of EBCQA on the green fluorescent protein(GFP)/red fluorescent protein from Discosoma sp.(DsRed) ratio, the expression of phosphatidylethanolamine-modified and GFP-labeled LGG-1(PE-GFP::LGG-1)/GFP-labeled LGG-1(GFP::LGG-1), and GFP-labeled SQST-1(GFP::SQST-1) proteins were investigated in transgenic C. elegans strains. The effect of EBCQA on paralysis was further evaluated after RNA interference(RNAi)-mediated suppression of the pink-1 and pdr-1 genes in CL4176 strain. An AD rat model was established through intraperitoneal injection of D-galactose and intragastric administration of aluminum trichloride. The effects of β-nicotinamide mononucleotide(NMN) and EBCQA on learning and memory ability, neuronal morphology, mitophagy occurrence, mitophagy-related protein expression(PINK1, Parkin, Beclin 1, LC3-Ⅱ/LC3-Ⅰ, p62), and mitochondrial functions(ATP content; enzyme activities of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes Ⅰ, Ⅲ, and Ⅳ; mitochondrial membrane potential) were investigated in this AD rat model. The results showed that EBCQA delayed paralysis onset in the CL4176 strain, reduced Aβ oligomer formation, and upregulated the mRNA expression levels of lgg-1, bec-1, pink-1, and pdr-1, while downregulating sqst-1 mRNA expression. EBCQA also enhanced ATP content, mitochondrial membrane potential, and the activities of mitochondrial respiratory chain complexes Ⅰ, Ⅲ, and Ⅳ. Furthermore, EBCQA improved the PE-GFP::LGG-1/GFP::LGG-1 ratio, reduced GFP::SQST-1 expression, and decreased the GFP/DsRed ratio. Notably, the ability of EBCQA to delay paralysis was significantly reduced following RNAi-mediated suppression of pink-1 and pdr-1 in CL4176 strain. In AD rats, the administration of NMN or EBCQA significantly improved learning and memory, restored neuronal morphology in the hippocampus, increased autophagosome numbers, and upregulated the expression of PINK1, Parkin, Beclin 1, and the LC3-Ⅱ/LC3-Ⅰ ratio, while reducing p62 expression. Additionally, the treatment with NMN or EBCQA both elevated ATP content, mitochondrial respiratory chain complex Ⅰ, Ⅲ, and Ⅳ activities, and mitochondrial membrane potential in the hippocampus. The above findings indicate that EBCQA improves cognitive impairment and mitochondrial dysfunction in AD, possibly through activation of PINK1/Parkin-mediated mitophagy.
Animals ; Alzheimer Disease/psychology* ; Mitophagy/drug effects* ; Mitochondria/genetics* ; Caenorhabditis elegans/metabolism* ; Ubiquitin-Protein Ligases/genetics* ; Cognitive Dysfunction/physiopathology* ; Rats ; Protein Kinases/genetics* ; Humans ; Male ; Disease Models, Animal ; Caenorhabditis elegans Proteins/genetics* ; Drugs, Chinese Herbal/administration & dosage*

OBJECTIVE: To explore the mechanism of Dihuang Yinzi (DHYZ) in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD) by integrating metabolomics and experimental verification. METHODS: Forty-eight male APP/PS1 mice were divided into model, high- (DHYZ-H), medium- (DHYZ-M), and low-dose DHYZ (DHYZ-L) groups (12 mice per group) according to a random number table. Mice in DHYZ groups were gavaged with DHYZ 6.34, 12.68, and 25.35 g/(kg·d), respectively. Twelve C57BL/6 mice were gavaged with distilled water as the blank group. Metabolomics was used to analyze differential metabolites in the brains of mice. Morris water maze test was used to detect the memory abilities of mice. The hematoxylin-eosin staining and transmission electron microscopy were used to observe the general morphology and ultrastructure of neurons. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to detect the levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and amyloid β -protein 1-42 (A β_1-42). The real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to detect the mRNA expressions of density-regulated protein 1 (DRP1), fission 1 (FIS1), mitofusin-1 (MFN1), and optic atrophy protein 1 (OPA1). Western blot was used to detect the protein expressions of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), protein kinase A (PKA), cAMP response binding protein (CREB), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), synapsin 1 (SYN1), synaptophysin (SYP), and postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95). RESULTS: A total of 82 differential metabolites were identified in the brains of APP/PS1 mice, among which 7 differential metabolites could be regulated by DHYZ. After DHYZ intervention, the memory abilities of mice significantly increased (P<0.05 or P<0.01), the number of synapses and neurons in the hippocampus increased, and the mitochondrial morphology and structure were relatively intact. The DHYZ groups exhibited a significant reduction in hippocampal ROS and A β_1-42 levels, along with a significant elevation in SOD level (P<0.05 or P<0.01). The mRNA expressions of DRP1 and FIS1 were reduced, while the mRNA expressions of MFN1 and OPA1 were increased after DHYZ treatment (P<0.05 or P<0.01). The cAMP/PKA/CREB-BDNF pathway was activated, and the expressions of SYN1, SYP and PSD95 proteins were significantly increased in the DHYZ-H group (P<0.05 or P<0.01). CONCLUSIONS DHYZ could improve mitochondrial dynamics and synaptic plasticity in APP/PS1 mice, inhibit oxidative stress, and thereby enhancing learning and memory abilities in APP/PS1 mice. Its mechanism might be related to activation of the cAMP/PKA/CREB-BDNF signaling pathway.
Animals ; Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor/metabolism* ; Male ; Cyclic AMP Response Element-Binding Protein/metabolism* ; Brain/drug effects* ; Metabolomics ; Mice, Inbred C57BL ; Neuronal Plasticity/drug effects* ; Drugs, Chinese Herbal/therapeutic use* ; Cyclic AMP-Dependent Protein Kinases/metabolism* ; Cyclic AMP/metabolism* ; Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism* ; Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/metabolism* ; Mice, Transgenic ; Mice ; Amyloid beta-Peptides/metabolism* ; Signal Transduction/drug effects* ; Alzheimer Disease/drug therapy* ; Superoxide Dismutase/metabolism*

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the associations between Tau protein deposition and brain biochemical metabolites detected by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H-MRS) in patients with advanced Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS: From April, 2022 to December, 2024, 64 Tau-positive AD patients and 29 healthy individuals underwent ¹⁸F-APN-1607 PET/MR and simultaneously acquired multi-voxel ¹H-MRS in the Department of Nuclear Medicine, Nanjing First Hospital. Visual analysis and voxel-based analysis of PET/MR data were performed to investigate the Tau protein deposition patterns in AD patients. Valid voxels within the ¹H-MRS field of view were selected, and their standardized uptake value ratio (SUVr) in PET and metabolite levels of N-acetylaspartate (NAA), choline (Cho), creatine (Cr), NAA/Cr, and Cho/Cr were recorded. The Tau-positive (Tau⁺) voxels and Tau-negative (Tau^-) voxels of the AD patients were compared for PET and ¹H-MRS parameters, and the correlations between the metabolites and Tau PET SUVr within Tau⁺ voxels were analyzed. RESULTS: Significant Tau protein deposition were observed in the AD patients, involving mainly the bilateral frontal lobes (30.07%), parietal lobes (29.96%), temporal lobes (21.07%), and occipital lobes (15.89%). A total of 1422 valid voxels in AD group (including 994 Tau⁺ and 428 Tau^- voxels) and 814 voxels in the control group were selected. The AD patients showed significantly decreased NAA level and increased SUVr compared with the control group (P<0.05). Subgroup analyses revealed that Tau⁺ voxels had higher SUVr and lower Cr and Cho/Cr than Tau^- voxels (P<0.05). Compared with the control group, Tau⁺ voxels exhibited higher SUVr and lower Cr (P<0.05), while Tau^- voxels showed lower NAA (P=0.004). No significant differences were found in Cho or NAA/Cr among the subgroups (P>0.05). Within Tau⁺ voxels, NAA, Cho, and Cr were negatively correlated with SUVr (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS The patients with progressive AD have significant Tau protein deposition in the brain, which is correlated with alterations in metabolite levels. Decreased NAA is more prominent in early or pre-tau deposition stages, while Cr changes is more significant in the regions with Tau protein deposition, suggesting the potential of NAA and Cr as biomarkers for Tau protein deposition in AD for disease monitoring and treatment evaluation.
Humans ; Alzheimer Disease/diagnostic imaging* ; Aspartic Acid/metabolism* ; tau Proteins/metabolism* ; Creatine/metabolism* ; Brain/metabolism* ; Biomarkers/metabolism* ; Positron-Emission Tomography ; Male ; Female ; Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy ; Choline/metabolism* ; Aged ; Middle Aged

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a neurodegenerative disorder with complex etiologies, manifests through a cascade of pathological changes before clinical symptoms become apparent. Among these early changes, alterations in the expression of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have emerged as pivotal events. In this study, we focused on the aberrant expression of ncRNAs and revealed that Lamr1-ps1, a pseudogene of the laminin receptor, significantly exacerbates early spatial learning and memory deficits in APP/PS1 mice. Through a combination of bioinformatics prediction and experimental validation, we identified the miR-29c/Bace1 pathway as a potential regulatory mechanism by which Lamr1-ps1 influences AD pathology. Importantly, augmenting the miR-29c-3p levels in mice ameliorated memory deficits, underscoring the therapeutic potential of targeting miR-29c-3p in early AD intervention. This study not only provides new insights into the role of pseudogenes in AD but also consolidates a foundational basis for considering miR-29c as a viable therapeutic target, offering a novel avenue for AD research and treatment strategies.
Animals ; Alzheimer Disease/pathology* ; Pseudogenes/genetics* ; Mice ; Memory Disorders/metabolism* ; MicroRNAs/genetics* ; Disease Models, Animal ; Spatial Learning/physiology* ; Mice, Transgenic ; Presenilin-1/genetics* ; Male ; Amyloid Precursor Protein Secretases/metabolism* ; Mice, Inbred C57BL ; Aspartic Acid Endopeptidases/metabolism*

Alzheimer's disease (AD) poses one of the most urgent medical challenges in the 21st century as it affects millions of people. Unfortunately, the etiopathogenesis of AD is not yet fully understood and the current pharmacotherapy options are somewhat limited. Here, we report a novel inhibitor, Compound 44, for targeting cholinesterases, amyloid-β (Aβ) aggregation, and glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) simultaneously with the aim of achieving symptomatic relief and disease modification in AD therapy. We found that Compound 44 had good inhibitory effects on all intended targets with IC₅₀s of submicromolar or better, significant neuroprotective effects in cell models, and beneficial improvement of cognitive deficits in the triple transgenic AD (3 × Tg AD) mouse model. Moreover, we showed that Compound 44 acts as an autophagy regulator by inducing nuclear translocation of transcription factor EB through GSK-3β inhibition, enhancing the biogenesis of lysosomes and elevating autophagic flux, thus ameliorating the amyloid burden and tauopathy, as well as mitigating the disease phenotype. Our results suggest that triple-target inhibition via Compound 44 could be a promising strategy that may lead to the development of effective therapeutic approaches for AD.
Animals ; Alzheimer Disease/genetics* ; Mice, Transgenic ; Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3 beta/metabolism* ; Disease Models, Animal ; Mice ; Amyloid beta-Peptides/metabolism* ; Cholinesterase Inhibitors/therapeutic use* ; Humans ; Autophagy/drug effects* ; Cognitive Dysfunction/pathology* ; Neuroprotective Agents/pharmacology*

Vascular damage plays a significant role in the onset and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying the induction of neuronal injury by vascular damage remain unclear. The present study aimed to examine the impact of fibrinogen (Fg) on tau pathology. The results showed that Fg deposits in the brains of tau P301S transgenic mice interact with tau, enhancing the cytotoxicity of pathological tau aggregates and promoting tau phosphorylation and aggregation. Notably, Fg-modified tau fibrils caused enhanced neuronal apoptosis and synaptic damage compared to unmodified fibrils. Furthermore, intrahippocampal injection of Fg-modified tau fibrils worsened the tau pathology, neuroinflammation, synaptic damage, neuronal apoptosis, and cognitive dysfunction in tau P301S mice compared to controls. The present study provides compelling evidence linking Fg and tau, thereby connecting cerebrovascular damage to tau pathology in AD. Consequently, inhibiting Fg-mediated tau pathology could potentially impede the progression of AD.
Animals ; tau Proteins/metabolism* ; Alzheimer Disease/metabolism* ; Fibrinogen/metabolism* ; Mice, Transgenic ; Mice ; Disease Models, Animal ; Memory Disorders/metabolism* ; Male ; Mice, Inbred C57BL ; Brain/metabolism* ; Hippocampus/metabolism* ; Protein Aggregation, Pathological/metabolism* ; Apoptosis ; Phosphorylation

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder worldwide, causing dementia and affecting millions of individuals. One prominent characteristic in the brains of AD patients is glucose hypometabolism. In the context of galactose metabolism, intracellular glucose levels are heightened. Galactose mutarotase (GALM) plays a crucial role in maintaining normal galactose metabolism by catalyzing the conversion of β-D-galactose into α-D-galactose (α-D-G). The latter is then converted into glucose-6-phosphate, improving glucose metabolism levels. However, the involvement of GALM in AD progression is still unclear. In the present study, we found that the expression of GALM was significantly increased in AD patients and model mice. Genetic knockdown of GALM using adeno-associated virus did not change the expression of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and APP-cleaving enzymes including a disintegrin and metalloprotease 10 (ADAM10), β-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), and presenilin-1 (PS1). Interestingly, genetic overexpression of GALM reduced APP and Aβ deposition by increasing the maturation of ADAM10, although it did not alter the expression of BACE1 and PS1. Further electrophysiological and behavioral experiments showed that GALM overexpression significantly ameliorated the deficits in hippocampal CA1 long-term potentiation (LTP) and spatial learning and memory in AD model mice. Importantly, direct α-D-G (20 mg/kg, i.p.) also inhibited Aβ deposition by increasing the maturation of ADAM10, thereby improving hippocampal CA1 LTP and spatial learning and memory in AD model mice. Taken together, our results indicate that GALM shifts APP processing towards α-cleavage, preventing Aβ generation by increasing the level of mature ADAM10. These findings indicate that GALM may be a potential therapeutic target for AD, and α-D-G has the potential to be used as a dietary supplement for the prevention and treatment of AD.
Animals ; ADAM10 Protein/metabolism* ; Alzheimer Disease/pathology* ; Amyloid Precursor Protein Secretases/metabolism* ; Disease Models, Animal ; Humans ; Mice ; Amyloid beta-Peptides/metabolism* ; Male ; Mice, Transgenic ; Membrane Proteins/metabolism* ; Cognitive Dysfunction/pathology* ; Mice, Inbred C57BL ; Amyloid beta-Protein Precursor/metabolism* ; Female ; Hippocampus/metabolism* ; Long-Term Potentiation/physiology*

Microglial functions are linked to Ca²⁺ signaling, with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium stores playing a crucial role. Microglial abnormality is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but how ER Ca²⁺ receptors regulate microglial functions under physiological and AD conditions remains unclear. We found reduced ryanodine receptor 2 (Ryr2) expression in microglia from an AD mouse model. Modulation of RyR2 using S107, a RyR-Calstabin stabilizer, blunted spontaneous Ca²⁺ transients in controls and normalized Ca²⁺ transients in AD mice. S107 enhanced ATP-induced migration and phagocytosis while reducing ramification in control microglia; however, these effects were absent in AD microglia. Our findings indicate that RyR2 stabilization promotes an activation state shift in control microglia, a mechanism impaired in AD. These results highlight the role of ER Ca²⁺ receptors in both homeostatic and AD microglia, providing insights into microglial Ca²⁺ malfunctions in AD.
Animals ; Microglia/pathology* ; Alzheimer Disease/pathology* ; Phagocytosis/drug effects* ; Ryanodine Receptor Calcium Release Channel/metabolism* ; Disease Models, Animal ; Mice ; Cell Movement/drug effects* ; Mice, Transgenic ; Calcium Signaling/physiology* ; Calcium/metabolism* ; Mice, Inbred C57BL ; Male ; Endoplasmic Reticulum/metabolism*