Introduction: Peripheral arterial disease (PAD) is a common macrovascular complication of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and is associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. The ankle-brachial index (ABI) is a simple, non-invasive method for detecting PAD; however, Doppler devices are not always available in primary care and resource-limited settings. This study aimed to determine the diagnostic accuracy of ABI measurement using a stethoscope compared with the Doppler method among adults with T2DM. Methods: A diagnostic accuracy study was conducted among 200 adults with T2DM recruited through convenience sampling from a private outpatient clinic in Iloilo City. ABI measurements were obtained using both the stethoscope and Doppler methods. An ABI of ≤0.90 was considered indicative of PAD. Diagnostic accuracy measures, including sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), negative predictive value (NPV), overall accuracy, and agreement, were calculated. Results: The prevalence of PAD was 30.5% using the stethoscope method and 35.0% using the Doppler method. Compared with Doppler ABI, the stethoscope method demonstrated an overall accuracy of 94.5%, sensitivity of 85.7%, specificity of 99.2%, PPV of 98.4%, and NPV of 92.8%. Agreement between the two methods was excellent (Cohen’s κ = 0.88, p < 0.001). Conclusion Stethoscope-based ABI determination demonstrated high diagnostic accuracy and excellent agreement with Doppler ABI. Given its low cost, accessibility, and non-invasive nature, it may serve as a practical screening tool for PAD among adults with T2DM, particularly in primary care and resource-limited settings where Doppler devices are unavailable
Peripheral arterial disease ; Ankle-brachial index ; Stethoscope ; Doppler ultrasound ; Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Introduction: Endothelial dysfunction (ED) is an early marker of atherosclerosis and plays a role in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular complications in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Metabolic factors such as adiposity and insulin resistance contribute to early vascular dysfunction, particularly in patients with preserved kidney function. This study aimed to identify factors associated with ED in T2DM and early-stage chronic kidney disease (CKD) Methodology: This study was conducted at Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Sungai Buloh, and involved 107 adults with T2DM and estimated glomerular filtration rate ≥60 mL/min/1.73 m² (CKD stages 1–2). Endothelial function was assessed using ultrasound-based brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMD), with ≤7.1% defining ED. Clinical, anthropometric, metabolic, and renal parameters were compared between groups. Logistic regression analyses were performed to identify independent predictors, with p-values <0.05 considered statistically significant. Results: Of the cohort, 48.6% (n = 52) had abnormal FMD. They tended to have higher BMI (31.36 vs 28.38 kg/m², p = 0.020), larger waist circumference (100.48 vs 94.53 cm, p = 0.026), and were more likely to be on insulin therapy (71.2 vs 49.1%, p = 0.020). The total daily insulin dose was higher in the abnormal FMD group (0.48 vs 0.35 U/kg), but this difference did not reach statistical significance (p = 0.140). There were no significant differences in hemoglobin A1c, blood pressure, or renal parameters. In multivariate analysis, BMI (adjusted OR 1.07, 95% CI 1.00–1.14, p = 0.037) and insulin therapy (adjusted OR 2.43, 95% CI 1.07–5.51, p = 0.034) remained independently associated. Conclusion In patients with T2DM and early CKD, higher BMI and insulin therapy are independently associated with ED. These findings highlight the role of obesity and insulin resistance in early vascular dysfunction, emphasizing the importance of weighttargeted strategies alongside glycemic control and further identifying high-risk individuals to reduce cardiovascular risk.
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 ;

Introduction: Multiple daily insulin injections, while effective for glycemic control, impose considerable costs on healthcare systems and carry inherent risks including hypoglycemia, weight gain, and poor treatment adherence. This study evaluates the glycemic effects of insulin regimen de-escalation from multiple daily injections in poorly controlled type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) patients and explores the predictors of successful insulin de-escalation. Methodology: This is a multi-centred, prospective observational study of adult T2DM patients on multiple daily insulin injections with hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) 7–12% who underwent de-escalation to one or two injections. Patients were reassessed at 3 months and 6 months. Primary endpoint was change in HbA1c from baseline. Secondary endpoints were changes in body weight, hypoglycemia frequency, treatment adherence and predictors of successful insulin de-escalation defined by at least a 0.3% reduction in HbA1c while on de-escalated regimen. Results: A total of 80 patients were included. HbA1c improved from 9.23 to 8.52% (p <0.001) with total daily insulin dose reduction from 0.81 + 0.35 units per kg to 0.46 + 0.24 units per kg. Symptomatic hypoglycemia decreased from 22.5 to 5.0%. Insulin adherence improved from 50.0 to 92.3%. Body weight decreased by 1.4 kg. Forty-nine patients (61.3%) were successfully de-intensified. Factors associated with successful insulin de-escalation included a high baseline HbA1c, high fasting blood glucose and higher estimated glomerular filtration rate, while increased age, disease duration and being Indian were associated with unsuccessful insulin de-escalation. After adjustment of the confounders, only HbA1c (OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.23–3.46, p = 0.006) and the status of being Indian (OR 0.21, 95% CI 0.05–0.94, p = 0.041) remained as significant positive and negative predictors respectively for successful insulin de-intensification. Conclusion Insulin regimen de-escalation, when combined with optimized oral glucose-lowering agents, improved glycemic control and treatment adherence while reducing hypoglycemia and body weight. These findings support insulin therapy deescalation as a safe, effective strategy for poorly controlled T2DM patients taking multiple daily insulin injections.
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 ; Prospective Studies ; Insulins

Introduction: Adequate knowledge of diabetes is essential for effective self-management and glycemic control. Emerging trends in digital platforms, video-based education offer a scalable and accessible approach to patient learning. However, evidence on the effectiveness of validated YouTube-based diabetes education in the Malaysian population remains limited. We aimed to evaluate the impact of a newly developed, tri-language YouTube diabetes education programme on clinical and knowledge outcomes. Methodology: In this multicentre study, patients with diabetes mellitus were randomly assigned to intervention (YouTube-based education) and control groups (standard care). The intervention consisted of newly developed and validated short educational videos on YouTube regarding diabetes, complications and lifestyle changes, delivered weekly via WhatsApp over 9 weeks. Videos were available in English, Malay and Chinese. The control group received standard care and counseling. Demographic data, hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c), and knowledge scores were collected at baseline and 3 months post-intervention. Results: A total of 109 patients (62.4% female; mean age 53.2 years; mean diabetes duration 16.3 years) were enrolled in the study, with similar baseline characteristics between groups. The intervention group demonstrated significantly greater improvement in glycemic control compared to the control group (HbA1c: −1.22 ± 1.36% vs. −0.24 ± 1.05%; p <0.001). While knowledge scores improved in both groups, the increase was significantly greater in the intervention group (2.66 vs. 0.80; p = 0.001). Notably, improvement in knowledge score predicted HbA1c reduction (b = 0.091; 95% CI 0.01, 0.172; p = 0.028). Conclusion The tri-language YouTube-based diabetes education programme significantly improved both glycemic control and patients’ knowledge. This accessible, scalable video-based education represents an effective strategy to enhance diabetes selfmanagement, offering flexible, on-demand learning for diverse populations.
Social Media ; Diabetes Mellitus

Introduction: Current education on diabetes self-management is time-consuming as it is conducted face-to-face. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of diabetes education via mobile application on hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c). Methodology: This was a double-blinded randomized controlled study conducted in the Department of Endocrinology, Hospital Pulau Pinang and Hospital Raja Permaisuri Bainun. Participants were stratified randomized according to HbA1c to intervention group (using T-Manis) and control group. The primary objective was to assess the difference in HbA1c between the groups. Secondary objectives were to assess the difference in body weight, hospitalization related to diabetes, diabetes knowledge between groups and usability and satisfaction of T-Manis. Laboratory investigations and questionnaires were conducted at baseline, 4 months and 8 months. Results: A total of 112 participants were randomized into two groups each with 56 participants. Mean age was 51 years with similar diabetes duration of 16 years in both groups. Participants comprised of 61.6% females with ethnic distribution of 49.1% Malay, 30.4% Chinese, 19.6% Indian and 0.9% Siamese. Baseline HbA1c levels were comparable between intervention and control groups (10.04% versus 9.91%; mean difference 0.13%; 95% CI −0.56 to 0.81; p = 0.718). At 4 months, HbA1c of the intervention group demonstrated a significant reduction compared to the control group (8.93% versus 9.80%; mean difference −0.86; 95% CI −1.59 to −0.14; p = 0.02). Sustained reduction of HbA1c in the intervention group was observed at 8 months (mean difference −1.01; 95% CI −1.85 to −0.16; p = 0.02). Baseline body weight was 77 kg, with no betweengroup differences in body weight, hospitalization related to diabetes and diabetes knowledge scores, although diabetes knowledge scores improved at 4 months in the intervention group. 89.3% of participants reported satisfaction with T-Manis Conclusion The T-Manis mobile application aided in significantly improving glycemic control with high user satisfaction, supporting its feasibility as an adjunct to standard diabetes care.
Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 ; Glycemic Control ; Mobile Applications ; Pangolins

Introduction: Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease (MOGAD) is an uncommon inflammatory demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system, with a reported prevalence of 1.3–2.5 per 100,000. Hypothalamic–pituitary involvement is rare and can mimic structural lesions, presenting with varying degrees of hypopituitarism and central diabetes insipidus. Case: A 30-year-old male presented with a 2-year history of poor concentration, blurring of vision and lethargy. Initial investigations revealed severe hypernatremia (serum sodium 165 mmol/L) and a 1.4 × 2.1 × 1.3 cm suprasellar cistern mass on CT scan, with differential diagnoses including meningioma and germinoma. Brain magnetic resonance imaging showed abnormal signals in the optic pathways and hypothalamus, raising suspicion of a demyelinating process. Endocrine evaluation confirmed panhypopituitarism: elevated prolactin (1125.2 mIU/L), hypogonadotropic hypogonadism (follicle-stimulating hormone 0.7 IU/L, LH 0.3 IU/L, testosterone <0.35 nmol/L), central hypothyroidism (TSH 3.8 mIU/L, free T4 5.88 pmol/L) and low cortisol (33.1 nmol/L). Persistent hypernatremia (up to 171 mmol/L) with high serum osmolality (370 mOsm/kg) and low urine osmolality (237 mOsm/kg) confirmed central diabetes insipidus, as urine osmolality rose to 755 mOsm/kg following intravenous desmopressin. He was commenced on sublingual desmopressin 60 micrograms twice daily, hydrocortisone (10 mg morning, 5 mg afternoon), levothyroxine 75 micrograms daily and monthly intramuscular testosterone 150 mg. Subsequent readmissions for generalized weakness and fever led to cerebrospinal fluid analysis and serum testing, which were positive for MOG antibodies and negative for aquaporin-4 antibodies, confirmed MOGAD. During a third admission with recurrent generalized weakness, he responded favorably to intravenous methylprednisolone (1 g daily for 5 days), followed by a tapering oral prednisolone regimen. Conclusion MOGAD can involve the hypothalamic–pituitary axis and mimic a suprasellar mass. In patients with panhypopituitarism, central diabetes insipidus and compatible imaging, inflammatory demyelination should be suspected. MOG antibody positivity and response to corticosteroids support diagnosis and guide management.
Diabetes Insipidus ; Hypopituitarism

Introduction: Diabetes affects 15.6% of Malaysian adults and remains a leading cause of complications and mortality. Although locally developed artificial intelligence (AI) tools have shown strong technical performance, their integration with clinicians’ decision-making in primary care remains fragmented. This perspective proposes a synergistic AI– clinician framework to deliver truly personalized proactive diabetes care. Methodology: A multidisciplinary team designed a clinical workflow that integrates three validated Malaysian AI components: (1) LightGBM (LGBM) model trained on Malaysian National Diabetes Registry (MNDR) data for complication risk prediction, (2) DR.MATA AI retinopathy screening with automated triage, and (3) AI-enhanced mobile apps for real-time self-management. These layers feed into a single secure clinician dashboard. The framework was modelled using existing datasets (MNDR 2011–2021, NHMS 2023, DR.MATA validation cohort >14,000 images) and aligned with the National AI Roadmap 2021–2025 and the forthcoming National AI Action Plan 2026–2030. Results: The LightGBM model achieved ROC-AUC values of 0.84 (mortality), 0.71 (retinopathy/nephropathy), 0.66 (ischemic heart disease), and 0.74 (stroke). DR.MATA demonstrated 93.3% accuracy with automated triage. When integrated, modelling suggests the framework could reduce major complications by approximately 20–30% and unnecessary referrals by up to 35%. The system runs automatically upon opening the patient record, requiring no extra clinician steps. Conclusion Synergizing AI with clinicians’ expertise offers a scalable solution for Malaysian primary health clinics. A 12-month national pilot is recommended to generate real-world evidence and inform the National AI Action Plan 2026–2030.
Artificial Intelligence ; Diabetes Mellitus

Introduction: Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is a common complication of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), with nerve conduction studies recognized as the diagnostic gold standard. Serum neuron-specific enolase (NSE) has been linked with DPN. This study aims to determine the prevalence of DPN among T2DM patients, evaluate clinical characteristics, and explore the relationship between NSE and DPN. Methodology: A cross-sectional study was conducted at Universiti Teknologi MARA Specialist Centre Sungai Buloh and Hospital Al-Sultan Abdullah, involving patients aged 18–60 years, diagnosed with T2DM for more than 5 years (n = 132). All participants underwent anthropometric measurement, completed the Michigan Neuropathy Screening Instrument evaluation, and biochemical parameters, including lipid profile, hemoglobin A1c, and serum creatine and NSE. The diagnosis of DPN was made based on positive NCS findings. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with DPN. Results: The study population had a mean age of 60.16 ± 10.28 years and a mean duration of diabetes of 14.82 ± 6.66 years. The prevalence of DPN was 51.5% (n = 68). Serum NSE levels were significantly higher (p = 0.003) and independently associated with the presence of DPN (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 1.033, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.009–1.058, p = 0.006). Participants with DPN were also more likely to be on insulin therapy (p = 0.040). In addition, retinopathy (adjusted OR 3.567, 95% CI 1.528–8.329, p = 0.013) and elevated Urine Albumin-to-Creatinine Ratio levels indicating albuminuria (adjusted OR 1.031, 95% CI 1.002– 1.061, p = 0.037) were significantly associated with DPN. Conclusion More than half of the study population had DPN, which was significantly associated with both retinopathy and nephropathy, as well as with elevated serum NSE. This emphasizes the importance of early screening and highlights the role of NSE as a surrogate marker for neuropathy in diabetes.
Humans ; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 ; Diabetic Neuropathies ; Prevalence ; Phosphopyruvate Hydratase

Introduction: Diabetes literacy represents personal knowledge and competencies related to diabetes mellitus (DM) among people living with DM (PLWD). It is a crucial component for optimizing care and empowering effective selfmanagement. Methodology: A cross-sectional study was conducted at Hospital Tuanku Ja’afar Seremban (HTJS) and Klinik Kesihatan Seremban (KKS) using a validated simplified Diabetes Knowledge Test (DKT). DKT assessed understanding in six domains, namely, awareness, lifestyle modification, diet and monitoring, general knowledge, preventive screening, and insulin. A score of >75% was classified as adequate diabetes literacy. Significant predictive factors identified from univariate Pearson Chi Square were further analyzed using multivariate logistic regression. Results: A total of 250 PLWDs, with equal contribution from each centre, were recruited with a mean (SD) age of 50.3 (13.6) years, 58.4% female, and 43.2% Malays. A total of 21.2% demonstrated adequate diabetes literacy. The results demonstrated the highest proficiency in the preventive screening domain (92.6%) and the lowest in the awareness domain (50.2%). Unemployed PLWDs had significantly lower odds of adequate diabetes literacy (odds ratio [OR] = 0.20, p = 0.010). Similarly, PLWDs with hemoglobin A1c levels >10% exhibited approximately 2.6-fold lower odds of adequate diabetes literacy. In contrast, PLWDs who reported healthcare personnel as their primary source of diabetes-related information had significantly higher odds of adequate literacy (OR = 1.59, p = 0.017). No significant association was demonstrated between diabetes literacy and frequency of hospital admissions, medication adherence, and diabetes-related target organ damage Conclusion Diabetes literacy among PLWD in HTJS and KKS is suboptimal, with notable gaps in awareness of the disease. Targeted, culturally tailored education strategies are essential to address these disparities and to empower them for effective diabetes self-management.
Literacy ; Diabetes Mellitus

Introduction: Sodium-glucose-linked-transporter inhibitors (SGLT2-i) have demonstrated cardiovascular and renal benefits in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), but patients aged ≥75 years remain underrepresented in major trials, creating uncertainty regarding their risk–benefit profile. Real-world data show mixed safety signals. In Malaysia, local evidence is limited despite a growing elderly diabetic population. This study evaluates the glycemic efficacy and safety of SGLT2-i in advanced elderly patients in a real-world public hospital setting. Methodology: We conducted a retrospective observational cohort study of patients aged ≥75 years with T2DM initiated on SGLT2-i in Hospital Putrajaya (2020–2024). Electronic records were reviewed for demographics, comorbidities, medications, and biochemical parameters. Outcomes at 6–12 months assessed glycemic control and safety. Adverse events and discontinuation rates were recorded. Patients with incomplete data, type 1 diabetes, active malignancy, or severe renal impairment were excluded. Results: A total of 104 patients (mean age 78.2 years; 54% female) were included with a high proportion (76.9%) classified as at high cardiovascular risk due to established macrovascular disease (57.7%) or nephropathy (53.8%). Indications for SGLT2-i initiation were glycemic control alone (69.2%) and together with cardiorenal protection (58.7%). Glycemic control remained stable (hemoglobin A1c: 7.66–7.45%; p = 0.076), with preserved renal function (estimated glomerular filtration rate: 58.65–58.11 mL/min/1.73 m²; p = 0.575). Overall safety was favorable, with 90.4% experiencing no adverse events. Minor adverse events included urinary tract infections (2.9%) and polyuria (1.9%). ASCVD-related hospitalizations occurred in 4.8% of patients, with a low discontinuation rate (7.7%). A statistically significant weight reduction was observed (baseline 66.67 kg, −1.01 kg; p = 0.005) but was not clinically significant. Proteinuria improvement was noted in 15.7% of patients. Conclusion SGLT2-i are safe and well-tolerated in elderly T2DM patients (≥75 years), with stable glycemic control, preserved renal function, and minimal adverse events, supporting their use in very elderly Asian populations.
Aged ; Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 ; Sodium-Glucose Transporter 2 Inhibitors