Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are the most established and versatile mammalian expression system for the large-scale production of recombinant therapeutic proteins, owing to their genetic stability, adaptability to serum-free suspension culture, and ability to perform human-like post-translational modifications. More than 70% of biologics approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration rely on CHO-based production platforms, underscoring their central role in modern biopharmaceutical manufacturing. Despite these advantages, CHO systems continue to face three persistent bottlenecks that limit their potential for high-yield, reproducible, and cost-efficient production: excessive metabolic burden during high-density culture, heterogeneity of glycosylation patterns, and progressive loss of long-term expression stability. This review provides an integrated analysis of recent advances addressing these challenges and proposes a forward-looking framework for constructing intelligent and sustainable CHO cell factories. In terms of metabolic regulation, excessive lactate and ammonia accumulation disrupts energy balance and reduces recombinant protein synthesis efficiency. Optimization of culture parameters such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, osmolarity, and glucose feeding can effectively alleviate metabolic stress, while supplementation with modulators including sodium butyrate, baicalein, and S-adenosylmethionine promotes specific productivity (qP) by modulating apoptosis and chromatin structure. Furthermore, genetic engineering strategies—such as overexpression of MPC1/2, HSP27, and SIRT6 or knockout of Bax, Apaf1, and IGF-1R—have demonstrated significant improvements in cell viability and product yield. The combination of multi-omics metabolic modeling with artificial intelligence (AI)-based prediction offers new opportunities for building self-regulating CHO systems capable of dynamic adaptation to environmental stress. Regarding glycosylation uniformity, which determines therapeutic efficacy and immunogenicity, gene editing-based glycoengineering (e.g., FUT8 knockdown or ST6Gal1 overexpression) has enabled the humanization of CHO glycan profiles, minimizing non-human sugar residues and enhancing drug stability. Process-level strategies such as galactose or manganese co-feeding and fine control of temperature or osmolarity further allow rational regulation of glycosyltransferase activity. Additionally, in vitro chemoenzymatic remodeling provides a complementary route to construct human-type glycans with defined structures, though industrial applications remain constrained by cost and scalability. The integration of model-driven process design and AI feedback control is expected to enable real-time prediction and correction of glycosylation deviations, ensuring batch-to-batch consistency in continuous biomanufacturing. Long-term expression stability, another critical challenge, is often impaired by promoter silencing, chromatin condensation, and random genomic integration. Molecular optimization—such as the use of improved promoters (CMV, EF-1α, or CHO endogenous promoters), Kozak and signal peptide refinement, and incorporation of chromatin-opening elements (UCOE, MAR, STAR)—helps maintain durable transcriptional activity, while site-specific integration systems including Cre/loxP, Flp/FRT, φC31, and CRISPR/Cas9 can enable single-copy, position-independent gene insertion at genomic safe-harbor loci, ensuring stable, predictable expression. Collectively, this review highlights a paradigm shift in CHO system optimization driven by the convergence of genome editing, synthetic biology, and artificial intelligence. The transition from empirical optimization to rational, data-driven design will facilitate the development of programmable CHO platforms capable of autonomous regulation of metabolic flux, glycosylation fidelity, and transcriptional activity. Such intelligent cell factories are expected to accelerate the transformation from laboratory-scale research to industrial-scale, high-consistency, and economically sustainable biopharmaceutical manufacturing, thereby supporting the next generation of efficient and customizable biologics manufacturing.

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are the most established and versatile mammalian expression system for the large-scale production of recombinant therapeutic proteins, owing to their genetic stability, adaptability to serum-free suspension culture, and ability to perform human-like post-translational modifications. More than 70% of biologics approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration rely on CHO-based production platforms, underscoring their central role in modern biopharmaceutical manufacturing. Despite these advantages, CHO systems continue to face three persistent bottlenecks that limit their potential for high-yield, reproducible, and cost-efficient production: excessive metabolic burden during high-density culture, heterogeneity of glycosylation patterns, and progressive loss of long-term expression stability. This review provides an integrated analysis of recent advances addressing these challenges and proposes a forward-looking framework for constructing intelligent and sustainable CHO cell factories. In terms of metabolic regulation, excessive lactate and ammonia accumulation disrupts energy balance and reduces recombinant protein synthesis efficiency. Optimization of culture parameters such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, osmolarity, and glucose feeding can effectively alleviate metabolic stress, while supplementation with modulators including sodium butyrate, baicalein, and S-adenosylmethionine promotes specific productivity (qP) by modulating apoptosis and chromatin structure. Furthermore, genetic engineering strategies—such as overexpression of MPC1/2, HSP27, and SIRT6 or knockout of Bax, Apaf1, and IGF-1R—have demonstrated significant improvements in cell viability and product yield. The combination of multi-omics metabolic modeling with artificial intelligence (AI)-based prediction offers new opportunities for building self-regulating CHO systems capable of dynamic adaptation to environmental stress. Regarding glycosylation uniformity, which determines therapeutic efficacy and immunogenicity, gene editing-based glycoengineering (e.g., FUT8 knockdown or ST6Gal1 overexpression) has enabled the humanization of CHO glycan profiles, minimizing non-human sugar residues and enhancing drug stability. Process-level strategies such as galactose or manganese co-feeding and fine control of temperature or osmolarity further allow rational regulation of glycosyltransferase activity. Additionally, in vitro chemoenzymatic remodeling provides a complementary route to construct human-type glycans with defined structures, though industrial applications remain constrained by cost and scalability. The integration of model-driven process design and AI feedback control is expected to enable real-time prediction and correction of glycosylation deviations, ensuring batch-to-batch consistency in continuous biomanufacturing. Long-term expression stability, another critical challenge, is often impaired by promoter silencing, chromatin condensation, and random genomic integration. Molecular optimization—such as the use of improved promoters (CMV, EF-1α, or CHO endogenous promoters), Kozak and signal peptide refinement, and incorporation of chromatin-opening elements (UCOE, MAR, STAR)—helps maintain durable transcriptional activity, while site-specific integration systems including Cre/loxP, Flp/FRT, φC31, and CRISPR/Cas9 can enable single-copy, position-independent gene insertion at genomic safe-harbor loci, ensuring stable, predictable expression. Collectively, this review highlights a paradigm shift in CHO system optimization driven by the convergence of genome editing, synthetic biology, and artificial intelligence. The transition from empirical optimization to rational, data-driven design will facilitate the development of programmable CHO platforms capable of autonomous regulation of metabolic flux, glycosylation fidelity, and transcriptional activity. Such intelligent cell factories are expected to accelerate the transformation from laboratory-scale research to industrial-scale, high-consistency, and economically sustainable biopharmaceutical manufacturing, thereby supporting the next generation of efficient and customizable biologics manufacturing.

"Sinew prescription correspondence" is the principle of selecting prescriptions for channel sinew diseases. On the basis of the theory of syndrome differentiation and treatment， the pulse manifestation corresponds to the channel sinew syndrome， which can improve the flexibility and standardization of clinical prescriptions. From the perspective of systematic dialectical sphygmology， this paper explains the dialectical relationship between channel sinew theory and pulse body elements， pulse wall elements， pulse elements and blood flow elements， and clarifies the internal relationship between pulse manifestation and prescriptions at the level of channel sinew disease. The prescription is derived from the method， while the method is established with the syndrome， and the prescription is unified by the method. According to the theory of "sinew prescription correspondence"， the treatment ideas of channel sinew diseases were analyzed from the perspective of channel sinew distribution， functional characteristics and structural changes. On this basis， the diagnosis of channel sinew disease and the application of prescriptions are expanded， and the research on the internal treatment and diagnosis mode of "pulse manifestation-channel sinew-zang fu （脏腑）" is prospected， so as to expand the differentiation and treatment methods of channel sinew theory.

Immobilized enzyme-based enzyme electrode biosensors, characterized by high sensitivity and efficiency, strong specificity, and compact size, demonstrate broad application prospects in life science research, disease diagnosis and monitoring, etc. Immobilization of enzyme is a critical step in determining the performance (stability, sensitivity, and reproducibility) of the biosensors. Random immobilization (physical adsorption, covalent cross-linking, etc.) can easily bring about problems, such as decreased enzyme activity and relatively unstable immobilization. Whereas, directional immobilization utilizing amino acid residue mutation, affinity peptide fusion, or nucleotide-specific binding to restrict the orientation of the enzymes provides new possibilities to solve the problems caused by random immobilization. In this paper, the principles, advantages and disadvantages and the application progress of enzyme electrode biosensors of different directional immobilization strategies for enzyme molecular sensing elements by specific amino acids (lysine, histidine, cysteine, unnatural amino acid) with functional groups introduced based on site-specific mutation, affinity peptides (gold binding peptides, carbon binding peptides, carbohydrate binding domains) fused through genetic engineering, and specific binding between nucleotides and target enzymes (proteins) were reviewed, and the application fields, advantages and limitations of various immobilized enzyme interface characterization techniques were discussed, hoping to provide theoretical and technical guidance for the creation of high-performance enzyme sensing elements and the manufacture of enzyme electrode sensors.

Steroid-induced osteonecrosis of femoral head (SONFH) is a disease characterized by femoral head collapse and local pain caused by excessive use of glucocorticoids. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) is mainly expressed in adipose tissue. Wnt/β-catenin, AMPK and other related signaling pathways play an important role in regulating adipocyte differentiation, fatty acid uptake and storage. Bone marrow mesenchymal cells (BMSCs) have the ability to differentiate into adipocytes or osteoblasts, and the use of hormones upregulates PPARγ expression, resulting in BMSCs biased towards adipogenic differentiation. The increase of adipocytes affects the blood supply and metabolism of the femoral head, and the decrease of osteoblasts leads to the loss of trabecular bone, which eventually leads to partial or total ischemic necrosis and collapse of the femoral head. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of short non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression by inhibiting the transcription or translation of target genes, thereby affecting cell function and disease progression. Studies have shown that miRNAs affect the progression of SONFH by regulating PPARγ lipid metabolism-related signaling pathways. Therefore, it may be an accurate and feasible SONFH treatment strategy to regulate adipogenic-osteoblast differentiation in BMSCs by targeted intervention of miRNA differential expression to improve lipid metabolism. In this paper, the miRNA-mediated PPARγ-related signaling pathways were classified and summarized to clarify their effects on lipid metabolism in SONFH, providing a theoretical reference for miRNA targeted therapy of SONFH, and then providing scientific evidence for SONFH precision medicine.
MicroRNAs/physiology* ; PPAR gamma/metabolism* ; Femur Head Necrosis/metabolism* ; Humans ; Signal Transduction/physiology* ; Lipid Metabolism/physiology* ; Animals ; Cell Differentiation ; Mesenchymal Stem Cells/cytology* ; Glucocorticoids/adverse effects*

Metabolic diseases characterized by an imbalance in energy homeostasis represent a significant global health challenge. Individuals with metabolic diseases often suffer from complications related to disorders in lipid metabolism, such as obesity and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Understanding core genes involved in lipid metabolism can advance strategies for the prevention and treatment of these conditions. Stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) is a key enzyme in lipid metabolism that converts saturated fatty acids into monounsaturated fatty acids. SCD1 plays a crucial regulatory role in numerous physiological and pathological processes, including energy homeostasis, glycolipid metabolism, autophagy, and inflammation. Abnormal transcription and epigenetic activation of Scd1 contribute to abnormal lipid accumulation by regulating multiple signaling axes, thereby promoting the development of obesity, NAFLD, diabetes, and cancer. This review comprehensively summarizes the key role of SCD1 as a metabolic hub gene in various (patho)physiological contexts. Further it explores potential translational avenues, focusing on the development of novel SCD1 inhibitors across interdisciplinary fields, aiming to provide new insights and approaches for targeting SCD1 in the prevention and treatment of metabolic diseases.
Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase/metabolism* ; Humans ; Metabolic Diseases/physiopathology* ; Lipid Metabolism/physiology* ; Animals ; Obesity/enzymology* ; Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

In the central nervous system (CNS), the myelin sheath, a specialized membrane structure that wraps around axons, is formed by oligodendrocytes through a highly coordinated spatiotemporal developmental program. The process begins with the directed differentiation of neural precursor cells into oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), followed by their migration, proliferation, differentiation, and maturation, ultimately leading to the formation of a multi-segmental myelin sheath structure. Recent single-cell sequencing research has revealed that this process involves the temporal regulation of over 200 key genes, with a regulatory network composed of transcription factors such as Sox10 and Olig2 playing a central role. The primary function of the myelin sheath is to accelerate nerve signal transmission and protect nerve fibers from damage. Its insulating properties not only increase nerve conduction speed by 50-100 times but also ensure the long-term functional integrity of the nervous system by maintaining axonal metabolic homeostasis and providing mechanical protection. The pathological effects of myelin sheath injury exhibit a cascade amplification pattern: acute demyelination leads to action potential conduction block, while chronic lesions may cause axonal damage and neuronal death in severe or long-term cases, ultimately resulting in irreversible neurological dysfunction with neurodegenerative characteristics. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by chronic inflammatory demyelination of the CNS. Clinically, the distribution of lesions in MS exhibits spatial heterogeneity, which is closely related to differences in the regenerative capacity of oligodendrocytes within the local microenvironment. Emerging evidence suggests that astrocytes form a dynamic “neural-immune-metabolic interface” and play a multidimensional regulatory role in myelin development and regeneration by forming heterogeneous populations composed of different subtypes. During embryonic development, astrocytes induce the targeted differentiation of OPCs in the ventricular region through the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. In the mature stage, they secrete platelet-derived growth factor AA (PDGF-AA) to establish a chemical gradient that guides the precise migration of OPCs along axonal bundles. Notably, astrocytes also provide crucial metabolic support by supplying energy substrates for high-energy myelin formation through the lactate shuttle mechanism. In addition, astrocytes play a dual role in myelin regulation. During the acute injury phase, reactive astrocytes establish a triple defense system within 72 h: upregulating glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) to form scars that isolate lesions, activating the JAK-STAT3 regeneration pathway in oligodendrocytes via leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), and releasing tumor necrosis factor-stimulated gene-6 (TSG-6) to inhibit excessive microglial activation. However, in chronic neurodegenerative diseases, the phenotypic transformation of astrocytes contributes to microenvironmental deterioration. The secretion of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) inhibits OPC migration via the RhoA/ROCK pathway, while the persistent release of reactive oxygen species (ROS) leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and the upregulation of complement C3-mediated synaptic pruning. This article reviews the mechanisms by which astrocytes regulate the development and regeneration of myelin sheaths in the CNS, with a focus on analyzing the multifaceted roles of astrocytes in this process. It emphasizes that astrocytes serve as central hubs in maintaining myelin homeostasis by establishing a metabolic microenvironment and signaling network, aiming to provide new therapeutic strategies for neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis.

Objective To explore the effects and mechanisms of Changpu Yujin Tang(CPYJT)on the NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3/cysteinyl aspartate specific proteinase-1/Gasdermin D(NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD)signaling pathway-mediated neuroinflammation in rats with Tourette syndrome(TS).Methods SPF-grade male SD rats were randomly divided into the Control and TS groups.After successful modeling in the TS group,the rats were randomly divided into the Model,Tiapride,and CPYJT groups,and were treated with the corresponding drugs for 4 weeks.After the treatment,the rats' behavior was scored,H & E staining was used to observe pathological changes in the striatum,ELISA was used to measure the content of IL-1β and IL-18,RT-qPCR was used to detect the expression of NLRP3 and ASC mRNA,and Western blot was used to detect the expression of NLRP3,ASC,Caspase-1,Cleaved-Caspase-1,GSDMD,and GSDMD-NT proteins.Results Compared with the Control group,the Model group showed increased scores of stereotyped and motor behaviors(P＜0.01),pathological changes in the striatal tissue,increased content of IL-1β and IL-18(P＜0.01),and upregulated expression of NLRP3,ASC mRNA,and NLRP3,ASC,Caspase-1,Cleaved-Caspase-1,GSDMD,and GSDMD-NT proteins(P＜0.01).Compared with the Model group,the Tiapride group and the CPYJT group showed decreased scores of stereotyped and motor behaviors(P＜0.01),improved pathological damage in the striatal tissue,reduced content of IL-1β and IL-18(P＜0.01),and inhibited expression of NLRP3,ASC mRNA,and NLRP3,ASC,Caspase-1,Cleaved-Caspase-1,GSDMD,and GSDMD-NT proteins(P＜0.01).Conclusion The therapeutic effect of CPYJT on TS is related to the inhibition of the neuroinflammatory response mediated by the NLRP3/Caspase-1/GSDMD signaling pathway.

To meet the domestic clinical demand timely,the national health commission has released three batches of encourage generic drug catalogues,which plays a good guiding role in improving the supply level and accessibility of generic drugs.Based on literature investigation,the typical cases of novel pharmaceutical preparations were analyzed,and the pharmaceutical considerations were put forward in terms formulation,manufacturing process and quality control,aimed to provide scientific reference for research and development of such drugs.

With the trend of population aging, the number of patients with comorbidities is increasing, who are the main subjects of general practice service in general hospitals. Tongji Hospital created a new service model and opened a multidisciplinary outpatient clinic based on general practice department (MDT general practic clinic) for patients with comorbidities in December 2021, which has improved the clinical outcomes, and the medical experience and satisfaction of patients. This article elaborates on the organizational structure, team building, and operational process of the MDT general practice clinic for comorbidities; analyzes the characteristics of patients and the implementation effects, to provide a reference for comorbidity patient service in general hospitals.