Background Sumpa mkhanpo Ye shes dpal ’byor (1704-1788) was a prominent scholar in 18th-century Mongolian medicine, culture, and thought, who developed a comprehensive philosophy integrating the harmony of body, mind, and spirit. His four clinical works, written between 1751 and 1785 and later known as the Four Medicinal Elixirs, addressed not only diseases but also human beauty, ethics, hygiene, and physical well-being, reflecting a concept of “inner aesthetics.” Ye shes dpal ’byor regarded external features such as appearance, scent, hair, and voice as inseparably linked to the balance of internal organs, psychological and intellectual states, and hygienic practices, in accordance with the Tibetan medical theory of the three humours. He viewed cosmetic treatments not merely as enhancements of physical appearance but as practices supporting psychological health, social awareness, and moral development. He emphasised the holistic care of children from early life, detailing methods to improve complexion, cultivate intelligence, assign meaningful names, and reinforce virtues, illustrating his systematic approach to human development. Furthermore, his work The White Dew of Medicinal Elixir documents surgical correction of cleft lips in children, representing the earliest written record of cosmetic surgery in Mongolia and demonstrating a creative integration of Chinese medical knowledge with local medicinal resources and practices. Thus, Sumpa mkhanpo Ye shes dpal ’byor uniquely combined knowledge of aesthetics and clinical medicine, implementing innovative concepts in Mongolian traditional medicine. His approach linked beauty treatments with personal value, mental health, social conscience, and ethical cultivation, grounded in a philosophy of the “unity of body, speech, and mind,” and established a framework for integrating health, aesthetics, morality, and quality of life in Mongolian medical thought.

Background: The feces of the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) have a long history of use in traditional medicine. Owing to the bird’s unique biological characteristics, its feces have been employed as a medicinal raw material in various traditional medical systems. Traditionally, processed bearded vulture feces have been used primarily to treat digestive disorders, tumors, wounds, and certain mental illnesses. However, academic research on their medicinal use remains limited. The purpose of this study is to analyze selected historical sources documenting the use of bearded vulture feces in traditional medicine and to clarify their therapeutic significance and reported effects. Aim: The objective of this study is to compile and review selected sources, commentaries, and texts that record the therapeutic use of bearded vulture feces in traditional medicine. Materials and Methods: This study employs historical and textual research methods, analytical–synthetic approaches, systematic analysis, and comparative historical methods. Relevant traditional medical literature was examined to identify and synthesize sources documenting the use of bearded vulture feces in the treatment of human diseases, with particular emphasis on gastrointestinal disorders and gastric cancer. Result: The results indicate that bearded vulture feces constituted an important therapeutic component in Tibetan, Mongolian, and Chinese traditional medical systems. Historically, they were primarily used in the treatment of bone-related diseases, digestive system disorders, and inflammatory conditions. The therapeutic significance of bearded vulture feces in traditional medicine can be summarized as follows: 1. Processing and Medicinal Properties: In traditional medical practice, bearded vulture feces are typically roasted or subjected to controlled processing before being incorporated into medicinal prescriptions. They are described as bitter in taste and warming in nature, with effects including resolving masses, eliminating “Badgan,” restoring vital heat, promoting digestion, stimulating appetite, and dispersing tumors. 2. Bone Strengthening Effects: Due to their content of minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, bearded vulture feces were believed to enhance bone strength and support bone regeneration. 3. Digestive Function Enhancement: The organic and biological components of the feces were traditionally thought to support digestive function and improve intestinal activity. 4. Antibacterial and Anti-inflammatory Effects: Certain chemical components of the feces were considered effective in combating inflammation and infection. Conclusion The feces of the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) have been used in traditional medicine over a long period, primarily for the treatment of bone diseases, digestive disorders, and inflammatory conditions. They are believed to contain minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, which may contribute to bone strengthening, improved digestion, and anti-inflammatory effects. Nevertheless, due to the limited scope of modern medical research, further studies are required to evaluate their efficacy and safety. Future research should focus on elucidating the biological activities and therapeutic applications of bearded vulture feces through interdisciplinary investigation.

Background: Gurgem-13, a traditional Mongolian medicinal formula, is described in the Four Medical Tantras as having therapeutic effects against liver disorders, toxins, renal “wind” conditions, urinary retention, hot-natured conditions, and parasitic infections. It has been widely used in Mongolian traditional medical practice for the treatment of various liver diseases. Aim: To evaluate the effects of Gurgem-13 fractions on the viability of LX-2 cells (human hepatic stellate cell line). Materials and Methods: Gurgem-13 powder was extracted by multiple solvents, including acetonitrile, methanol, distilled water, petroleum ether, n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and anhydrous ethanol, to obtain distinct fractions. LX-2 cells were cultured under standard conditions and treated with varying concentrations of each fraction. Cell proliferation was assessed using the MTT assay. Results: All Gurgem-13 fractions exhibited dose-dependent inhibitory effects on LX-2 cell proliferation. At concentrations of 50 and 100 µL/mL, a statistically significant reduction in cell proliferation was observed (p<0.05). Among the tested fractions, the ethyl acetate fraction demonstrated the highest inhibitory activity. Conclusion Gurgem-13 fractions, particularly the ethyl acetate fraction, significantly suppresses the proliferation of hepatic stellate cells in vitro, suggesting potential antifibrotic activity. These findings support the traditional use of Gurgem-13 in liver disease and suggest its potential therapeutic value against liver fibrosis.

Background: Cynomorium songaricum Rupr., known in Mongolia as Ulaan goyo, is a rare parasitic plant of the Central Asian arid regions that grows on the roots of Nitraria. In Mongolian Traditional Medicine, it has long been used as a tonic to preserve vital essence (semen), tonify the kidneys, enhance sexual vitality, and treat paralysis and limb weakness. Aim: This study aims to clarify the historical use and medicinal significance of Cynomorium songaricum through source evidence and provide a scientific explanation by integrating these findings with modern phytochemical and pharmacological research. Materials and Methods: The study was conducted using a Historical Research Design (HRD). Methods included comparative-historical analysis and philological study of traditional sources. Key materials examined were V.I. Grubov’s botanical keys, the Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Medicine (1981), and classical medical texts such as Bencao Gangmu and Bencao Yanyi Bu. Results: Historical records from the 13th-century Yuan dynasty describe the plant’s distribution in the Mongolian Gobi. Traditional texts highlight its ability to tonify “Yin” and increase blood and essence. Modern studies have identified over 90 bioactive compounds, including flavonoids and triterpenoids, which possess antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and anti-inflammatory properties. Specific formulations like Goyo-11 have been shown to assist in gastric ulcer healing, while Goyo-4 helps reduce liver cell damage in chronic alcoholic liver disease. Toxicological evaluations have confirmed its safety profile. Conclusions 1. The traditional therapeutic applications of Cynomorium songaricum Rupr., as recorded in 13th-century historical sources, closely align with modern scientific evidence. 2. Traditional medicinal claims are validated by contemporary phytochemistry, which identifies bioactive compounds-such as flavonoids, polysaccharides, triterpenoids, and steroids-responsible for its proven pharmacological benefits. 3. Recent studies confirm the plant’s favorable toxicological safety profile and highlight its essential ecological role as a vital component of the desert ecosystem. 4. These findings demonstrate the high therapeutic value of C. songaricum, emphasizing the critical need for future clinical trials, cultivation development, and strategic conservation efforts.

Background: Insects are an inexhaustible source of medicine, and it is essential to study the biologically active substances contained in insect bodies. Although there is information about various insects and beetles used in traditional Mongolian medicine treatment, there are few studies that have compiled and compared these at the source level. Aim: To study and determine from primary sources information about the composition of pheromone secretions contained in the bodies of various insects and worms used in “Entomotherapy (Insect therapy)” in traditional medicine, particularly rare beetle species, and information about what diseases and ailments these insects were used to treat. Materials and Methods: This study used primary source and historical research methods, analysis-synthesis methods, systematic analytical methods, and historical comparative methods. Information was extracted from traditional medicine source books about insect therapy, particularly identifying and compiling primary sources about the use of beetles in folk medical treatment. Results: According to primary sources, traditional Mongolian medicine used quite a variety of “therapeutic insects and worms” of animal origin, including representatives of arthropods such as scorpions, spiders, centipedes, wasps, bees, various types of beetles, and moths. Among these, stag beetles, dung beetles, and black beetles were used in traditional medicine for treating joint and muscle diseases, various women’s diseases, epilepsy and convulsions, headaches, and all 11 types of bile diseases, with specific prescriptions developed for each condition. Conclusion Traditional medicine treatment used various insects from the biological classification of the insect class, particularly many types of beetles from the Coleoptera order. The pheromone secretions contained in their bodies include many different types of chemical substances.

Background: Cancer incidence and mortality are steadily increasing both globally and in Mongolia. As these rates rise, traditional Mongolian medicine has long utilized herbal formulas for the treatment of gastric and esophageal cancers and precancerous conditions. One such formulation—Hot Natured 3 Herbs (HN3H)—comprises three species from the Ranunculaceae family: Atragene sibirica L., Ranunculus repens L., and Pulsatilla bungeana L.. However, scientific validation of its anti-tumor effects is essential. This study aimed to investigate the effect of HN3H in a tumor-induced animal model. Aim: To identify the biologically active compounds of HN3H and evaluate their effect in an experimentally induced tumor model in animals. Materials and Methods: The three herbs comprising HN3H—Atragene sibirica L., Ranunculus repens L., and Pulsatilla bungeana L.—were collected during their flowering stage (May–June) in Khishig-Undur, Bulgan province, and dried according to official procedures. Extraction was carried out by maceration in 96% ethanol at a 1:10 ratio. The concentrated extract was suspended in water (1:1) and successively fractionated with dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, butanol, chloroform, and n-hexane. The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences (Protocol №2020/03-04). A colorectal cancer model was established by subcutaneous injection of MC-38 cells (Kerafast, USA) into C57BL/6 mice. Immunohistochemistry was performed using CK20, CDX2, Ki67, and p53 antibodies at 1:100 and 1:200 dilutions. Results: The ethanol extract of HN3H contained 2.98±0.04% total phenolics and 2.16±0.05% total flavonoids. Body weight and tumor volume were measured daily with three repetitions. All groups showed a time-dependent increase in body weight. Mice in groups 1A and 1B received ethanol extract at 50 and 100 mg/kg doses; groups 2A and 2B received dichloromethane extract at the same doses. The negative control group was administered 0.5 mg/kg PBS orally, while the positive control group received intraperitoneal injections of 5-fluorouracil (5FU) at 10 mg/kg twice a week. Tumor growth increased in a time-dependent manner across groups. Compared to the negative control, tumor volumes in four treatment groups showed statistically significant reduction (p˂0.05), while no significant difference was observed when compared to the positive control (p=0.08). Histological analysis revealed necrosis in all groups, with variation in extent. Conclusion The ethanol extract of HN3H exhibited moderate levels of phenolic compounds and a high concentration of flavonoids. HN3H extract inhibited tumor progression and activated lymphocyte-predominant inflammation in tumor tissues, indicating potential anti-tumor activity (p˂0.05).

Background: Traditional Mongolian medicine (TMM), which is the main knowledge of medicine of ancient nomads, has produced hundreds of healers, practitioners, doctors, and scientists in the course of 5,000 years of historical development. The methods developed to diagnose, treat, and prevent diseases are used to protect the health of the population even today. Based on the study of medical records and artifacts, it is possible to determine which diseases were prevalent and use archeological finds and records related to the diseases to determine what treatment methods were used. Research goal: To clarify reports, facts, and evidence on spinal disorders and their treatment methods from ancient books written in Tibetan, Manchu, and Mongolian languages on Traditional Mongolian medicine. Methods: The source study method, hermeneutic method, and a method of comparison were used in studying traditional medical books, research literature, and other related materials. Conclusion Research has shown that the structure, function, pathological changes, diagnosis, and treatment methods of the spine have been recorded in many ancient records written in Tibetan, Manchu, and Mongolian languages on Traditional Mongolian medicine. At the same time, since ancient times, Mongolians have been adapting to the transformation of natural phenomena, and drastic changes in climate and developed methods of treating injuries and diseases caused by the characteristics of life, habits, and war, as well as established an independent system of methods for studying and treating the structure of the human body and living a healthy life by accumulating experience passed down from generation to generation. This system was not only based on the knowledge of Mongolian dhom treatment, and Indian and Tibetan medicine, but it was also a complex of knowledge that incorporated the ancient scriptures of Western medicine.

Background: Throughout history, Mongolians experienced struggles of ups and downs, creating a comprehensive teaching, knowledge, and system on the art and science of living and healthy living and passing it on to the next generation. Since the middle of the last century, the use and study of traditional knowledge have decreased, and with it, the use has decreased, and some knowledge has almost been forgotten. In particular, many branches of traditional medicine, including manual techniques, surgical methods, techniques related to surgery, the use of tools, and the skills of pressing, bone setting, and massage have declined in value, and some methods have almost been forgotten. Therefore, we have chosen the topic due to the need of exploring the possibility of solving this issue and enriching the history of traditional medicine by elucidating the ancient historical development of Mongolian bone-setting therapy, of which reports and historical documents in Mongolian medicine are rare. Research goal: To clarify the ancient history of Mongolian bone-setting therapy, establishing its features, usage, and types of methods based on historical evidence.
The following methods were used in the research
Herein: the method of researching original documents and reports, the method of comparison, and the method of probabilistic listing. Conclusion
1. Evidence related to ancient Mongolian bone-setting therapy dates back to the Iron Age and can be traced back to 2000 years ago from the traces of illness and injuries, bone ossification, and signs of healing of the ancient nomads living in Chandman mountain of present day Uvs province, the tribe known as Chandman people.
2. The research shows that it is possible to determine which diseases were prevalent based on the study of related artifacts and scriptures related to Traditional Mongolian medicine, and which methods of treatment were used using archaeological finds and scriptures related to the diseases.

Background: The medical works written by Darmo Maaramba Luvsanchoidog have been an important source for the theory, treatment, training and research of traditional Mongolian medicine. In recent years, number of his medical books written by dbu med (in English headless scriptures) have been found, but they are difficult to read or translate and have not been studied at all in Mongolia. Therefore, the study has been carried out to facilitate the use of handwriting medical scriptures by Darmo Maaramba Luvsanchoidog for research, teaching, and to explain complex words in his books. Purpose: Explain the difficult words related to precious medicines in the book called “legs bshad be ed’u dkar poi ‘phreng ba zhes bya ba bzhugs so” written by Darmo Maaramba Luvsanchoidog. Research methods: Methods of textual analysis for ancient books and analysis and synthesis were used in the study. Conclusion In the book “legs bshad be ed’u dkar poi ‘phreng ba zhes bya ba bzhugs so” written by Darmo Maaramba Luvsanchoidog clearly outlines the method of analyzing the sources of many precious medicines. Furthermore, the research identified that “legs bshad be ed’u dkar poi ‘phreng ba zhes bya ba bzhugs so” is a significant work to understand precious medicines in the main scriptures of medicine and thoroughly explained their content and terminology. In particular, ring srel (in English relic), which has long been forgotten in traditional medicine, has gained practical significance as it clearly explains its classification, nature, and use.

DM is the long term chronic disease that leads to late stage vascular complications and pathogeneses of chronic complication started 5-10 years ago when the diagnosed diabetes. T2DM can remain asymptomatic for many years, majority associated complications or several chronic diseases. Main risk for people with diabetes, that hyperglycemia in microvascular complications and alteration of dyslipidemia makes macro vascular complications such as foot amputation, disability, cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, blindness and stroke. Our study aimed to evaluate foot care patients of type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and determained risk factors for foot complication in newly diagnosed T2DM. The survey was conducted in Ulaanbaatar. For the study we 188 and 150 patients newly diagnosed T2DM, who have met the inclusion criteria and agreed with informed consent. We have evaluated self care for foot and self-management control. We measured anthropometric measurements, blood pressure (BP), levels of HbA1C, lipids and fasting blood glucose (FBG) at the baseline, in 3 and up to 6 months in educated and noneducated groups. Statistical analyses was performed using SPSS 16 software. The study involved mean age 20-69 years and male 43.1 %, female 56.9 % patients with T2DM who have been controlled by endocrinologists’ in hospitals s of Ulaanbaatar. Also we studied patients newly diagnosed T2DM mean age was 49.4±8.9 male 65(43.6%), female 85(56,7%) and 39.3% of the participants had a family history of diabetes.In last week self reported servey was in male 3.7 % every day foot care, 93.8 % of male without self care in foot, in female 48.5 % every day foot care (p<0.003). There were statistically significant different between BMI, WC, BFP with normal (p<0.05). The weight, BFP were statistically significant different between gender BMI, WC, blood pressure were no significant between male and female (p>0.05) in newly diagnosed T2DM. Participant’s bad glycemic control for diabetic foot risk factors are FBG, HbA1c,LDL were significantly higher than normal of health adults (p<0.05), but there were no significant TG (p>0.05). However, total cholesterol, HDL were normal level. From above results, the TG was statistically different between gender (p<0.05) Poor control in foot care by selt management in patients with newly diagnosed T2DM. Therefore poor glycemic and metabolic control in patients newly diagnosed T2DM.