Objective To examine the impact of extreme temperature and drought stress on the survival of Bulinus globosus, so as to provide the theoretical evidence for the genomic research of Bulinus in absence of reference genes. Methods B. globosus snail samples were collected from Kiwani Shehia in Pemba Island, Zanzibar, Tanzania, and offspring snails were obtained through laboratory breeding and reproduction. A total of 120 10-week-old B. globosus snails from the same generation were selected and randomly assigned into four groups, including the high-temperature drought (HD) group, normal temperature drought (D) group, low-temperature drought (LD) group, and the control (C) group, of 30 snails in each group. Snails in HD, D, and LD groups were placed in beakers containing dry soil at the bottom and subsequently housed in climate chambers at 35, 26 ℃, and 10 ℃, respectively, while snails in Group C were maintained in 500 mL petri dishes containing dechlorinated tap water at 26 ℃. Following 3 days of breeding, living snails in each group were collected, and soft tissues were dissected and isolated. Total RNA was extracted from snail soft tissues for library construction, followed by high-throughput sequencing on the Illumina HiSeq 4000 sequencing system. De novo transcriptome assembly was performed using the Trinity software, and the longest transcripts were selected as unigenes. Gene functional annotations of unigenes were conducted using the Diamond software against Gene Ontology (GO) knowledgebase, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway database, NCBI non-redundant (NR) protein sequences database, Protein Family (Pfam) database, and UniProtKB/Swiss-Prot (Swiss-Prot) knowledgebase. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were performed using the topGO and clusterProfiler software, respectively. In addition, four relevant genes were selected for validation using a real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) assay to verify the reliability of transcriptome sequencing results. Results Following 3 days of breeding, there were 7, 20, 28, and 30 survival B. globosus snails in HD, LD, D, and C groups, with corresponding survival rates of 23.33% (7/30), 66.67% (20/30), 93.33% (28/30), and 100.00% (30/30), respectively (χ² = 52.72, P < 0.001). De novo transcriptome assembly generated 176 942 unigenes, with annotation rates of 0.98%, 13.49%, 26.46%, 12.48%, and 14.39% against GO knowledgebase, KEGG pathway database, NR protein sequences database, Pfam database, and Swiss-Prot knowledgebase, respectively. There were 33 up-regulated and 72 down-regulated genes in Group D, 483 up-regulated and 815 down-regulated genes in Group HD, and 245 up-regulated and 172 down-regulated genes in Group LD relative to in Group C. Following removal of overlapping genes across groups and unmatched genes, 11 candidate genes were identified. GO and KEGG analyses revealed 3 heat shock protein (HSP)-related DEGs in these 11 candidate genes, which were annotated as HSP12.2, HSP70, and HSP20 genes and were all significantly up-regulated in each treatment group. Three immune and nervous system-related DEGs were identified, and were all significantly down-regulated in each treatment group, which were involved in the neural cell adhesion molecule L1-like protein pathway, fibrinogen binding protein pathway, and leukocyte elastase inhibitor-like protein pathway. qRT-PCR assay quantified that the expression trends of four genes related to temperature and drought stress across different treatment groups were highly consistent with transcriptome sequencing data. Conclusion The survival rate of B. globosus significantly reduces under combined stresses of extreme temperature and drought, possibly due to an imbalance in its cellular homeostasis regulatory system.

Objective Objective To analyze the potential spatial factors affecting the genetic differentiation of Oncomelania hupensis robertsoni in Yunnan Province. Methods A total of 13 administrative villages were selected from schistosomiasis-endemic areas of Yunnan Province as O. hupensis snail sampling sites. At least 200 snails were collected in each site, and the spatial variable data of each site were recorded, including longitude, latitude and altitude. Thirty active and Schistosoma japonicum uninfected O. hupensis snails were selected from each sampling site by means of the crawling method and the cercarial shedding method. Genomic DNA was extracted from O. hupensis snails. Following PCR amplification, purification of PCR amplification products and sequencing, the gene sequences of O. hupensis snail samples were spliced and edited using the DNAstar software and the NCBI database to yield the complete mitochondrial sequences of O. hupensis snails at each sampling site, and the mitochondrial genetic distance matrix of O. hupensis robertsoni was calculated at each sampling site. The geographical coordinates of each sampling site were marked using the software ArcGIS 10.2, and the straight-line geographical distance between each sampling site was calculated. The altitude difference, longitude difference and latitude difference between each sampling site were calculated using the Excel software, and the correlation between the mitochondrial genetic distance matrix of O. hupensis robertsoni and each spatial variable matrix was examined by using the Mantel test at 13 sampling sites in Yunnan Province. Results Among the 13 O. hupensis snail sampling sites in Yunnan Province, the largest mitochondrial genetic distance of O. hupensis robertsoni snail populations was seen between Anding Village, Nanjian Yi Autonomous County and Caizhuang Village, Midu County (26.244 2), and the largest geographical distance was seen between Dongyuan Village, Gucheng District and Cangling Village, Chuxiong County (272.64 km). The highest altitude difference was seen between Anding Village, Nanjian Yi Autonomous County and Dongyuan Village, Gucheng District (1 086.10 m), and the largest longitude difference was found between Qiandian Village, Eryuan County and Cangling Village, Chuxiong County (1.86°), while the largest latitude difference was measured between Leqiu Village, Nanjian Yi Autonomous County and Dongyuan Village, Gucheng District (1.81°). In addition, the mitochondrial genetic distance of O. hupensis robertsoni snail populations was positively correlated with altitude at 13 snail sampling sites in Yunnan Province (r = 0.542 8, P < 0.001), and showed no significant correlations with geographical distance (r = 0.093 4, P > 0.05), longitude (r = −0.199 5, P > 0.05) or latitude (r = 0.205 7, P > 0.05). Conclusion Altitude may be a potential spatial factor affecting the genetic differentiation of O. hupensis robertsoni in Yunnan Province.

Objective To construct an index system for assessment of schistosomiasis transmission risk following natural disasters such as rainstorms, floods, earthquakes, mudslides, and landslides, so as to provide insights into rapid identification of schistosomiasis transmission risk post-disasters and formulation of targeted schistosomiasis control strategies. Methods An initial framework for the index system for assessment of schistosomiasis transmission risk following natural disasters was drafted through literature review, brainstorming, and focus group discussions. Two rounds of expert correspondence consultations were conducted using the Delphi method to refine and finalize the system, and the degrees of expert activeness, authority and endorse ment, and consensus were evaluated. In addition, the weights of each index were calculated using the analytic hierarchy process. Results A total of 18 experts participated in the consultation. The expert positive coefficients were 100.00% and 94.44% for two rounds of consultations, with authority coefficients of 0.92 and 0.94, respectively. The coefficients of coordination on the index importance, rationality and operability were 0.209, 0.185, 0.222 and 0.407, 0.214, 0.257 for two rounds of consultations, respectively, and all consistency tests were statistically significant (χ² = 246.771 to 505.278, all P values < 0.001). Following two rounds of expert consultations, an index system consisting of 6 first-level indicators, 15 second-level indicators, and 49 third-level indicators was ultimately constructed. In terms of first-level indicators, “disaster situation”, “previous epidemics”, “healthcare guarantee”, “response capacity” and “emergency recovery” had the highest weights, each at 18.18%. Regarding second-level indicators, “Schistosoma japonicum infections in animals”, “S. japonicum infections in snails” and “medical treatment” had the highest weights, each at 7.35%. In terms of third-level indicators, ten items had the highest weights, including “identification of schistosomiasis cases”, “detection of S. japonicum infections in wild feces”, “detection of S. japonicum infections in snails”, “reserves of schistosomiasis diagnostic/testing reagents and consumables”, “reserves of chemotherapy agents for human and animal schistosomiasis”, “reserves of cercariacides”, “periodical surveillance on schistosomiasis”, “identification of schistosomiasis transmission risk and timely response”, “normal provision of diagnosis and treatment services” and “post-disaster schistosomiasis surveillance”, each at 2.40%. Conclusion A scientific, systematic, and practical index system has been constructed for assessment of schistosomiasis transmission risk following natural disasters, which may provide insights into rapid post-disaster identification of schistosomiasis transmission risk, formulation of targeted schistosomiasis control strategies and optimization of resource allocation.

Based on review of global and Chinese schistosomiasis control progress and the evolution of control strategies, this article focuses on Chinese practical experiences of schistosomiasis control and systematically summarizes five key determinants for schistosomiasis transmission risk, including source of infections, intermediate host snails, high-risk populations, natural environments, and social factors. To address these risks and challenges associated with these determinants, the article reviews the advances in techniques for assessment of schistosomiasis transmission risk and their applications, including conventional risk assessment approaches, mathematical model-based tools for prediction of schistosomiasis transmission risk, and indicator-systembased techniques for assessment of schistosomiasis transmission risk. This review underscores the essential role of interdisciplinary integration and dynamic management in precision schistosomiasis control and recommends the intensification of verification of field adaptation and dynamic updates of indicator systems to promote the widespread application of assessment tools across diverse regions and contexts, so as to provide strategic guidance and methodological support to achieve the target for elimination of schistosomiasis across China in 2030.

To understand the progress of, summarize experiences from, and analyze problems in the national schistosomiasis elimination programme, this article presented the national schistosomiasis epidemiology and surveillance in the People’s Republic of China in 2025. By the end of 2025, Shanghai Municipality, Zhejiang Province, Fujian Province, Guangdong Province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region maintained the achievement of schistosomiasis elimination, and 7 provinces of Jiangsu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Hubei, Hunan, Anhui and Jiangxi remained at the criteria of schistosomiasis transmission interruption. In 2025, there were 450 counties (cities, districts), 3 203 townships and 26 029 villages endemic for schistosomiasis in China, with a total population of 73.598 million in endemic villages. Among the 450 endemic counties (cities, districts), 421 (93.56%) achieved the criteria of schistosomiasis elimination and 29 (6.44%) reached the criteria of transmission interruption. In 2025, a total of 3 630 874 residents received immunological tests for schistosomiasis across endemic areas in China, with 31 588 seropositives identified (seroprevalence, 0.87%), and a total of 154 293 individuals received parasitological examinations, with 5 egg-positives detected. A total of 26 688 advanced schistosomiasis cases were recorded in China by the end of 2025. Of 529 683 bovines raised in schistosomiasis-endemic villages in China in 2025, 101 637 bovines received immunological tests for schistosomiasis, with 183 seropositives detected (seroprevalence, 0.18%), and 165 654 bovines received parasitological examinations, with no egg-positives identified. In 2025, Oncomelania hupensis snail survey was performed covering an area of 667 524.82 hm² in China, and 176 378.64 hm² O. hupensis snail habitats were identified, including 123.77 hm² emerging O. hupensis snail habitats and 953.71 hm² re-emerging O. hupensis snail habitats. A total of 19 283 schistosomiasis cases received chemotherapy with praziquantel in China in 2025, and 477 450 person-times and 304 279 herd-times received expanded chemotherapy, respectively. In addition, O. hupensis snail control with chemical treatment covered 116 475.10 hm² snail habitats across China in 2025, with an actual area with chemical control covering 68 510.93 hm² and an area with environmental improvements covering 1 101.84 hm². The national schistosomiasis surveillance results indicated that the mean prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum infections was both 0 among humans and bovines in 2025, and no S. japonicum infection was detected in O. hupensis snails. These data showed that the prevalence of schistosomiasis remained low in China in 2025; however, the area of O. hupensis snail habitats stayed high, with an increase in emerging and reemerging O. hupensis snail habitats. It is recommended to improve the surveillance and forecast mechanism for schistosomiasis and precisely implement the O. hupensis snail control programme in high-risk areas.

Objective To systematically reconstruct the evolution of schistosomiasis prevalence in China from 1950 to 2024, so as to fill the gap of national data on schistosomiasis prevalence in China before 1986. Methods Schistosomiasis control data were collected from schistosomiasis-endemic areas of China before 1986, which mainly included statistical data on schistosomiasis, compilations of control records, annual work reports, and academic papers. Data pertaining to the prevalence of schistosomiasis from each province (autonomous region, municipality) were collected and summarized annually, and integrated into national annual work reports for schistosomiasis control in China from 1986 to 2024 to build a national schistosomiasis epidemic database covering schistosomiasis patients, cattle with schistosomiasis, and Oncomelania hupensis snails. The provincial-level epidemic data of schistosomiasis were summarized annually from 1986 to 2024 with pivot tables, and then the national epidemic data of schis tosomiasis were summarized. The temporal trends in key epidemic indicators of schistosomiasis were analyzed in China from 1950 to 2024. Results A complete time-series dataset of schistosomiasis was established in China from 1950 to 2024 through systematic reconstruction of multi-source historical documents and materials. A total of 1.97 million newly detected schistosomiasis cases were recorded in China from 1950 to 2024, and the actual number of schistosomiasis patients was all more than 1 million each year from 1955 to 1978. There were only more than 20 000 advanced schistosomiasis patients in China by the end of 2024, and the prevalence of Schistosoma japonicum human infections reduced from 34.6% in 1950 to below 1.0% after 1996. A total of 2.47 million cattle were tested positive for schistosomiasis, and the prevalence of S. japonicum infections reduced from 21.4% in bovines since 1950. The area of emerging O. hupensis snail habitats was concentrated during the period between 1956 and 1958, accounting for 49.8% of total areas, while the area of emerging O. hupensis snail habitats significantly decreased since 1992, indicating a stable distribution pattern of O. hupensis snails. Data validation results showed that the cumulative variation in areas of O. hupensis snail habitats was 1.6%, and the cumulative variation in the number of schistosomiasis cases was 1.4%. Join-point regression analysis revealed four turning points in the prevalence of S. japonicum infections in humans and seven turning points in the prevalence of S. japonicum infections in livestock across China from 1955 to 2024. Conclusions Through the joint efforts of the Communist Party of China and government leadership, interdepartmental collaboration, professional teams, scientific and technological innovation, and public participation, the schistosomiasis epidemic has been effectively controlled in China following active control for more than 70 years. This study builds, for the first time, a complete time-series dataset on schistosomiasis in China, which provides insights into assessment of the effectiveness of schistosomiasis control programmes and refinement of the experience from schistosomiasis control programmes in China.

Echinococcosis is a neglected zoonotic parasitic disease across the world, which imposes a substantial burden on human health and socioeconomic development in endemic areas. From a One Health perspective, this review systematically summarizes the legal framework, scheme, integrated interventions, control achievements, and challenges in the national echinococcosis control programme of China. An integrated strategy centered on control of the source of Echinococcus infections has been implemented for echinococcosis control in China, and cross-sectoral and cross-regional multidisciplinary coordination mechanisms have been progressively established, resulting in remarkable achievements gained in human health, animal health, and integrated environmental management. The endemicity of echinococcosis remarkably reduced in China in 2023 as compared to results from the national echinococcosis epidemiological survey in China between 2012 and 2016 (baseline), with an 82.14% reduction in human prevalence, an 80.00% reduction in detection of echinococcosis among children, a reduction of prevalent echinococcosis patients to 25 400 cases, a 36.96% reduction in the number of dogs, an 88.24% reduction in the prevalence of Echinococcus infections in dogs, a 67.00% reduction in the number of stray dogs, an 80.77% reduction in the prevalence of echinococcosis in live-stock, and a 69.23% reduction in the prevalence of Echinococcus infections in rodents. Nevertheless, an estimated 14 600 canines were found to have Echinococcus infections in endemic areas across China in 2023, and the prevalence of Echinococcus infections increased by 241.03% in wild canines in 2023 relative to in 2021, which underscores the persistent threat to echinococcosis transmission. Future efforts are required to strengthen the One Health governance system, increase the financial investment, foster innovations in integrated control technologies, enhance cross-sectoral collaboration, and improve the capacity building at the grassroots level to advance the achievement of the national target of basically controlling echinococcosis in all endemic counties in China by 2030, thereby facilitating the process towards echinococcosis control and elimination.

Schistosomiasis, a zoonotic infectious disease, remains one of the major public health concerns in the world. As a country endemic for schistosomiasis with a long history and substantial disease burdens, China has sustained successive control efforts for over seven decades in the context of the One Health concept, establishing a cross-sectoral collaboration mechanism encompassing health, agriculture, water development resources, and forestry and grassland sectors. A package of interventions have been employed tailored to management of the source of Schistosoma japonicum infections, Oncomelania hupensis snail control, improved water supply and sanitation, environmental modification, and risk surveillance, and a “human-animal-environment” collaborative prevention and control model has been gradually generated. As a consequence, the transmission of schistosomiasis was interrupted across China in 2023. To achieve the goal of schistosomiasis elimination and sustainably consolidate the achievements of elimination in China, it is still necessary to enhance the long-term cross-sectoral coordination mechanism, promote interdisciplinary collaboration for innovating control technologies and strategies, establish an intelligent surveillance network covering the entire region, and strengthen the response and emergency management capabilities. In addition, distilling China’s schistosomiasis control and elimination experiences will provide a “One Health” model for the prevention and control of other parasitic and tropical diseases, thereby contributing to global disease control and sustainable development.

To understand the progress of, summarize the lessons learned from and analyze the challenges in the national schistosomiasis elimination program of China in 2024, this article presented the endemic situation of schistosomiasis and national schistosomiasis surveillance results in the People’s Republic of China in 2024. By the end of 2024, Shanghai Municipality, Zhejiang Province, Fujian Province, Guangdong Province and Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region continued to consolidate schistosomiasis elimination achievements, and 7 provinces of Jiangsu, Sichuan, Yunnan, Hubei, Hunan, Anhui and Jiangxi maintained the criteria of schistosomiasis transmission interruption. A total of 450 counties (cites, districts) were found to be endemic for schistosomiasis in China in 2024, including 26 061 endemic villages covering 73 630 500 residents at risk of infections. Among the 450 counties (cities, districts) endemic for schistosomiasis, 388 (86.22%) achieved the criteria of schistosomiasis elimination and 62 (13.78%) achieved the criteria of transmission interruption. In 2024, a total of 4 102 624 individuals received immunological tests for schistosomiasis in China, with 44 823 sero-positives identified (1.09% seroprevalence), and a total of 169 722 individuals received parasitological examinations, with 1 egg-positives detected. A total of 27 321 cases with advanced schistosomiasis were documented in China by the end of 2024. In 2024, a total of 575 686 bovines were raised in schistosomiasis-endemic villages of China, and 113 842 bovines received immunological tests, with 235 sero-positives detected (0.21% seroprevalence), while no egg-positives were identified among the 167 475 bovines receiving parasitological examinations. In 2024, snail survey was performed covering an area of 680 498.27 hm² in China, and 190 778.66 hm² snail habitats were identified, including 59.09 hm² emerging snail habitats and 704.23 hm² reemerging snail habitats. In 2024, a total of 19 665 schistosomiasis patients receiving chemotherapy with praziquantel in China, and expanded chemotherapy was given to humans at 571 722 person-times and to bovines at 306 740 herd-times. In addition, snail control with chemical treatment covered 117 111.37 hm² snail habitats across China in 2024, and the actual area of chemical treatment was 66 562.95 hm², while environmental improvements were performed in snail habitats covering an area of 1 374.26 hm². The national schistosomiasis surveillance results showed that the mean prevalence rates of Schistosoma japonicum infections were both 0 among humans and bovines in China in 2024, and no S. japonicum infection was detected in snails. These data demonstrated that the prevalence of schistosomiasis remained at a low level in China in 2024; however, the areas of snail habitats remained high and the number of fenced cattle showed a slight increase. To address these risks, it is imperative to maintain the integrated strategy with an emphasis on management of the source of S. japonicum infection and intensified snail control in high-risk areas, and to reinforce schistosomiasis surveillance and forecast and snail control in high-risk areas.

Antibiotic-resistant (AR) bacterial wound infections (WIs) impose major burdens on healthcare systems, exacerbated by ineffective therapies and stalled antibiotic development. Phage therapy and phage-derived enzymes have gained traction as potent alternatives, leveraging targeted bactericidal mechanisms to combat AR pathogens. In this review, we summarised the antimicrobial mechanisms of both phage therapy and phage-derived enzymes as antimicrobial therapy, and outlined recent advances in their use for in vitro , in vivo and clinical applications for WI management. In addition, we also highlights recent advancements in their development, driven by genetic engineering, chemical modifications, and artificial intelligence. Finally, we identified the potential barriers and challenges they may encounter in clinical practice and the corresponding strategies to address these issues. The entire review gives us a comprehensive understanding of the latest advances in phages and their derivative enzyme therapies for treating WIs, in the hope that research in this field will continue to improve and innovate, accelerating the transition from the laboratory to application at the bedside and ultimately improving the efficacy of treatment for AR bacterial WIs.
Humans ; Phage Therapy/methods* ; Wound Infection/drug therapy* ; Bacteriophages/enzymology* ; Enzyme Therapy/methods* ; Animals ; Bacterial Infections/therapy*