Background: Overconsumption of unhealthy foods and beverages, namely those high in sugar, salt, and saturated or trans fats, is observed among children and is associated with poorer health outcomes. The global trend of increasing consumption of foods with high energy and low nutrient density, including refined foods such as sugary and savory snacks, is reflected across all socioeconomic groups. Unhealthy food consumption increases the risk of overweight and obesity, and consequently elevates the risk of developing non-communicable diseases (NCDs) [1]. Therefore, it is necessary to assess the level of unhealthy food consumption among general education school students, disseminate the findings to the public, and develop and implement evidence-based interventions accordingly. Material and Methods: A cross-sectional analytical study design was employed. A total of 5,578 students were randomly selected from 33 schools operating in Övцrkhangai Province and included in the study. Quantitative data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics version 23.
The prevalence of unhealthy food consumption and oral hygiene status among students was expressed as frequencies and percentages. The association between two variables was assessed using Pearson’s Chi-square test, and a p-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
The internal consistency reliability of the questionnaire was determined using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. Results: Among the participating students, 92.7% reported regularly consuming fast food, and 75.8% consumed it more than three times per week. The main reasons for consuming unhealthy foods included “being quick and convenient” (53.9%), “craving” (43.6%), and “the widespread availability of such foods nearby” (6.9%). Consumption of all types of sugary and processed foods showed a statistically significant association with dental caries (p=0.0001), indicating that these products contribute to the development of tooth decay. Furthermore, the prevalence of healthy teeth was highest (84.1%) among students who brushed their teeth at least twice a day, whereas dental caries was more common among students who brushed once daily or did not brush at all. This suggests that increased frequency of toothbrushing is associated with lower rates of dental caries, and this relationship was statistically significant (p<0.000). Conclusion The majority of students participating in the study regularly consume unhealthy foods such as fast food, carbonated beverages, sugary products, ice cream, and chocolate, and 58.6% were found to have dental caries. When comparing by location, both the frequency of unhealthy food consumption and the prevalence of dental caries were higher in the provincial center and in larger or roadside soums.

Background: Optimal nutrition during infancy is critical for growth, development, and long-term health outcomes. Globally, child malnutrition remains a major public health concern, with a growing shift from undernutrition to a dual burden that includes overweight and obesity. In Mongolia, national surveys indicate declining undernutrition but rising overnutrition among young children. Objective: To assess the nutritional status and feeding practices of children aged 0–23 months in Kherlen soum Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 166 children aged 0–23 months using systematic random sampling. Data were collected through caregiver questionnaires and anthropometric measurements. Nutritional status was assessed using WHO Anthro software (Z-scores). Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS-26, applying chi-square and t-tests at a 95% confidence level. Results : Early breastfeeding initiation was high (94.6%), but exclusive breastfeeding among 0–5 months was low (43.9%). Continued breastfeeding declined with age (p<0.05). Appropriate complementary feeding frequency was observed in 71%, and 68.8% met minimum dietary diversity. Stunting (1.8%) and wasting (0.6%) were low, with no acute malnutrition. However, 37.8% were at risk of overweight, increasing with age. Conclusion Exclusive breastfeeding rates among infants aged 0–5 months remain suboptimal. Undernutrition (stunting and wasting) is low among children under two years.
A considerable proportion of children are at risk of overweight, indicating a growing double burden of malnutrition

Introduction: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by persistent hyperglycemia due to impaired insulin secretion or action. The global prevalence of DM is increasing rapidly, threatening public health and quality of life. In Mongolia, the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has shown a continuous upward trend, highlighting the need for effective plant-derived formulations with glucose-lowering potential.
This study aimed to evaluate the antihyperglycemic effect of composite formulations containing Lagerstroemia speciosa L. (Banaba), Helianthus tuberosus L., and Dasiphora fruticosa L. in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Methods: T2DM was induced in Wistar rats by intraperitoneal injection of alloxan monohydrate (170 mg/kg). The rats were divided into seven groups: Group 1: healthy control, Group 2: diabetic control, Group 7: metformin-treated (40 mg/200 g), and four treatment groups (Groups 3-6) receiving different combinations of Banaba, Jerusalem artichoke, and Shrubby cinquefoil extracts for 19 consecutive days. Blood glucose levels were measured daily using a GluNeo® Lite glucometer.
After 19 days, animals in Group and Group 6 exhibited significant reductions in blood glucose levels compared with the diabetic (Group 2) and metformin-treated (Group 7) controls (p<0.01). Group 5 demonstrated the greatest hypoglycemic effect, reducing glucose levels by 43.4% relative to the diabetic control group (Group 2). Conclusion Composite formulations containing Banaba, Helianthus tuberosus L., and Dasiphora fruticosa L. exhibited significant antihyperglycemic activity in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. The formulation with Banaba (24 mg) + Helianthus tuberosus L. (200 mg) + Dasiphora fruticosa L. (100 mg) showed the most potent glucose-lowering effect, comparable to metformin, indicating its potential as a promising herbal formulation for T2DM management.

Abstract Chronic toxicity studies are essential for evaluating potential adverse effects associated with the long-term or repeated administration of pharmaceutical compounds, biologically active substances, herbal products, and emerging materials. These studies aim to identify cumulative and organ-specific toxicities that may not be detected in short-term assessments, thereby supporting dose selection, risk characterization, and regulatory decision-making. This review summarizes current methodologies, key endpoints, regulatory considerations, and recent scientific advances in chronic toxicity evaluation using laboratory animal models.
The review is based on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Test Guidelines 407, 408, and 452, which define standardized approaches for 28-day, 90-day, and long term repeated-dose toxicity studies in rodents. Core evaluation parameters discussed include clinical observations, body weight and food consumption, hematological and biochemical analyses, urinalysis, endocrine assessments, organ weights, necropsy findings, and histopathological examinations, with emphasis on the determination of the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL).
In addition to conventional endpoints, recent developments such as ophthalmological examinations, molecular and oмics-based technologies, and novel biomarkers are highlighted for their ability to improve mechanistic understanding and early detection of organ injury. The integration of alternative in vitro models, organoids, organ-on-a-chip systems, and in silico approaches in accordance with the 4R principles is also discussed. Despite existing limitations, chronic toxicity studies remain a cornerstone of preclinical safety assessment, and their integration with advanced technologies enhances relevance, ethical compliance, and predictive value.

Background: Speech audiometry is a widely used standard diagnostic method in the evaluation of hearing and auditory function. It requires word materials that are developed in the native language of the target population and that reflect its phonetic characteristics. Because the phonetic structure, pronunciation, and familiarity of words directly influence speech recognition, it is essential to use language-specific word lists that are phonetically balanced, uniformly distributed, and psychometrically validated to ensure the accuracy and reliability of testing. Therefore, there is a strong need to develop Mongolian bisyllabic word lists that are balanced in both phonetic and psychometric properties, which forms the basis of this study. Aim: To develop psychometrically balanced Mongolian bisyllabic word lists for use in speech audiometry and to evaluate their suitability for determining the Speech Recognition Threshold (SRT). Materials and Methods: Fifty-five commonly used and phonetically balanced Mongolian bisyllabic words were selected and recorded by a professional female speaker. The recordings were presented to 50 normal-hearing participants aged 18–29 years at ten intensity levels ranging from –4 to 14 dB HL in 2-dB steps. Based on participants’ responses, the 50% SRT and the 20–80% slope of the psychometric function for each word were calculated using logistic regression. Chi-square and one-way ANOVA analyses were performed to examine the equivalence between lists. On the basis of these results, two psychometrically balanced half-lists, each containing 25 words, were constructed, and digital level adjustments were applied to ensure uniform intensity. Result: The slopes of the psychometric functions for the two half-lists ranged from 11.2 to 11.6 %/dB. Chi-square and one-way ANOVA analyses showed no statistically significant differences between the two lists in terms of the 50% SRT and psychometric slope derived from logistic regression [χ²(24, N=50) = 2.21, p = 0.99; F(1,48) = 0.00895, p = 0.925]. The mean pure-tone average (PTA) threshold of the 50 normal-hearing participants was 2.23 dB HL with a standard deviation of 4.4 dB. The difference between PTA and SRT was less than 10 dB HL for all participants, which is within the clinically acceptable range. Conclusion The developed Mongolian bisyllabic word lists, consisting of two 25-word sets, are suitable for determining the Speech Recognition Threshold and can be reliably applied in clinical speech audiometry practice.

Background: Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a disease caused by compression of the median nerve in the carpal tunnel and is considered to have an individual, occupational, and socioeconomic impact. Aim: To study the risk factors for CTS among hospital floor cleaners. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among floor cleaners at the Third State Central Hospital. Clinical and electrophysiological severity of CTS were evaluated using standardised scales, and symptoms were assessed with the self-administered Boston Questionnaire (BQ). Demographic and non-occupational factors, as well as durations of current and previous occupations, were recorded. The diagnosis was confirmed by electrophysiological analysis. Each assessment was categorised as mild, moderate, or severe. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 27.0. Result: The prevalence of CTS among floor cleaners was 39% (32/82) (p < 0.001). In the simple logistic regression, comorbidities (OR, 2.50 [95% CI, 1.02-6.16]), smoking (OR, 3.90 [95% CI, 1.12-13.57]) and in the multiple logistic regression, only comorbidities (OR, 2.90 [95% CI, 1.03-8.16]) were the predictors of CTS. Conclusion The risk of developing CTS among hospital floor cleaners is influenced by BMI, smoking, and comorbidities, including diabetes mellitus.

Background: Zinc is an essential trace element that plays a crucial role in immune function, skin integrity, and inflammatory regulation. Zinc deficiency has been associated with impaired immune response and increased risk of allergic diseases, including atopic dermatitis. Hair mineral analysis provides a reliable method for assessing long-term mineral status. Aim: This study aimed to investigate the association between hair zinc levels and atopic dermatitis among Mongolian children. Materials and Methods: A retrospective observational study was conducted among 1000 children aged 0–18 years. Hair samples were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Statistical analysis was performed using the chi-square test. Results: The results showed that 79.6% of children had zinc deficiency. Zinc deficiency was highly prevalent in younger age groups, affecting 99.3% of children aged 0–9 years and 93.6% in those aged 10–14 years, while it decreased significantly to 10.2% in those aged 15 years and older. A significant association was found between age group and zinc status (χ²=727.111, p<0.001). Among the participants, 6.3% were diagnosed with atopic dermatitis, and 71.4% of them had zinc deficiency. Conclusion These findings suggest a potential association between zinc deficiency and atopic dermatitis. Early detection and nutritional intervention for zinc deficiency in children may be important for preventing allergic skin diseases.

Introduction: Arsenic is a widespread environmental metalloid that poses a global health risk, particularly through contamination of drinking water. Exposure arises from natural and human activities through ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption. Its absorption and toxicity vary by chemical form, with trivalent arsenic generally more toxic than pentavalent arsenic. Once absorbed, arsenic can accumulate in tissues and body fluids. Objective: To compare urinary arsenic concentrations among adults residing in selected mining and non-mining areas of Mongolia. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study included 422 adults from mining areas (n = 333; Bayan-Undur, Tsogtsetsii, and Khanbogd) and non-mining areas (n = 89; Bulgan and Bayandalai). Questionnaire data on sociodemographic characteristics, occupation, smoking, and dietary habits were collected. Urine samples were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Arsenic concentrations were summarized as geometric means (GMs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results: Of the 422 participants, 242 (57.3%) were women. The GM urinary arsenic concentration was 31.10 µg/L [95% CI, 28.96–33.58] in mining areas and 26.42 µg/L [95% CI, 22.98–30.39] in non-mining areas. Among mining communities, GMs were 33.45 µg/L in Bayan-Undur, 25.49 µg/L in Tsogtsetsii, and 24.82 µg/L in Khanbogd. In the non-mining communities, GMs were 29.43 µg/L in Bulgan and 23.02 µg/L in Bayandalai. Conclusion The urinary arsenic concentration was higher among adults in the selected mining areas, with variation between communities. Further analyses accounting for potential confounders, together with arsenic speciation and environmental measurements, are needed to clarify exposure sources and the contribution of mining activities.

Background: There is a scarcity of research in Mongolia that assesses essential minerals—crucial for child growth—by analyzing their levels in hair tissue and correlating these findings with age, gender, and growth indicators. This gap serves as the rationale for the present study. Aim: To determine the prevalence of deficient levels (below laboratory reference ranges) of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, P, Fe, Cu, and Se in hair, and to evaluate their associations with growth curves, age, and gender. Materials and Methods: We conducted a retrospective cross-sectional analysis of data from 1,000 children aged 1–18 years who underwent testing at the “Tod-H” Pediatric Growth Clinic between June 2016 and December 2022. The children were categorized into the following age groups: 0–4 (n=138), 5–9 (n=276), 10–14 (n=390), and 15–18 years (n=196). Mineral analysis of hair samples was conducted at the “Medinex” laboratory in South Korea using the ICP-MS method; values falling below the laboratory’s reference range were classified as a “deficiency.” Among the total of 1,000 children, the growth curves of 997 children with recorded height measurements were evaluated and categorized into three groups: ≤3rd percentile (growth retardation, n=154), 3rd–50th percentile (relatively short stature, n=497), and >50th percentile (normal growth, n=346). Three children diagnosed with autism, for whom height measurement was not possible, were excluded from the growth-related analyses. The prevalence of mineral deficiencies is presented as n (%), and comparisons across growth curve groups, age, and sex were performed using the χ² test, with adjustments made via the Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) procedure. Logistic regression analysis, adjusted for age and sex, was employed to compare the growth-retarded and relatively short-stature groups against the >50th percentile (normal growth) group. Results: An analysis of mineral levels in the hair of all children included in the study revealed deficiencies (levels below the reference range) in the following proportions: zinc (Zn) in 79.6%, phosphorus (P) in 76.6%, selenium (Se) in 73.3%, calcium (Ca) in 19.7%, and magnesium (Mg) in 17.5%. In the group of children with stunted growth, the prevalence of deficiencies was 88.3% for zinc (Zn), 85.7% for phosphorus (P), and 30.5% for calcium (Ca)—rates higher than those observed in the group of children with relatively short stature (3rd–50th percentiles; Zn 77.9%, P 73.8%, Ca 16.5%) and the group with normal growth (>50th percentile; Zn 78.0%, P 76.3%, Ca 19.7%). After applying the FDR correction, the differences among the three growth-curve groups were statistically significant for Zn (q=0.030), P (q=0.030), and Ca (q=0.006). In contrast, the prevalence of selenium (Se) deficiency was identical across all three growth-curve groups (73.4%, 73.4%, 73.4%; q=1.000). The study results indicate that age-related differences are most pronounced regarding deficiencies in zinc, phosphorus, and calcium. The prevalence of zinc (Zn) deficiency was 99.3% for the 0–4 and 5–9 age groups, 93.6% for the 10–14 age group, and 10.2% for the 15–18 age group. For phosphorus (P), the corresponding figures were 93.5%, 92.8%, 90.8%, and 13.8%, while for calcium (Ca), they were 33.3%, 37.0%, 9.5%, and 6.1%, respectively (p<0.001). Furthermore, the prevalence of deficiencies in zinc (Zn) (84.6% vs. 76.0%; q=0.007), iron (Fe) (5.5% vs. 1.7%; q=0.007), and selenium (Se) (77.4% vs. 70.4%; q=0.049) was higher in females than in males. After adjusting for age and sex and applying the False Discovery Rate (FDR) correction, it was determined that none of the mineral deficiencies showed an independent association with stunted growth or relatively short stature. Conclusion Hair mineral analysis revealed that deficiencies in zinc (Zn), phosphorus (P), and selenium (Se) were the most common. In children with growth retardation, deficiencies in zinc (Zn), phosphorus (P), and calcium (Ca) were relatively more prevalent; however, this was associated with age distribution, and factor analysis did not confirm an independent correlation. Conversely, selenium (Se) deficiency did not differ across the growth curve groups.

Background: Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disease characterized by reduced bone mineral density (BMD) and deterioration of bone microarchitecture, resulting in decreased bone strength and an increased risk of fragility fractures. Early assessment of BMD is essential for identifying skeletal abnormalities and supporting clinical decision-making. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is a widely used, non-invasive method for evaluating BMD at clinically relevant skeletal sites. Aim: To assess bone mineral density using DXA and describe the corresponding T-score and Z-score measurements in adult patients. Materials and Methods: This descriptive observational study was conducted from June to October 2026 at the Department of Trauma and Orthopedic Surgery, Mongolia–Japan Hospital, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. Eight patients aged 18 years or older without fractures were included. According to the study records, participants were selected using a random sampling method. Demographic characteristics, height, weight, body mass index (BMI), and DXA measurements were recorded. BMD, bone mineral content (BMC), T-scores, and Z-scores were assessed at the lumbar spine, hip, and forearm. Continuous variables were summarized as means and standard deviations, and categorical variables as frequencies and percentages. Results: A total of eight patients were included, comprising five males (62.5%) and three females (37.5%). The mean age was 52.65±7.95 years, and the mean BMI was 31.59±6.32 kg/m². The mean lumbar spine (L1–L4) T-score was 0.35±1.49, and the mean Z-score was 0.97± .36. The lowest reported mean T-score was observed at the left forearm (−1.29±4.34), followed by the right forearm (−1.25±3.87). Measurements were also recorded at the left and right hip regions. The findings were descriptive and were not intended to establish population-level prevalence. Conclusions The demographic and anthropometric characteristics of the eight patients included in the study were assessed. The mean age was 52.65±7.95 years, and the mean body mass index (BMI) was 31.59±6.32 kg/m². Of the participants, 5 (62.5%) were male and 3 (37.5%) were female. The mean BMI of the participants fell within the obesity category. Bone mineral density (BMD) was assessed using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) at the lumbar spine, both hips, and both forearms. The results showed variations in BMD measurements across the different anatomical sites examined. An analysis of the T-scores and Z-scores for each measurement site revealed a mean T-score of 0.35±1.49 and a mean Z-score of 0.97±1.36 at the lumbar spine. At the left hip, the mean T-score was −0.63±1.29 and the mean Z-score was 0.34±1.52, while at the right hip, the mean T-score was −0.63±1.15 and the mean Z-score was 0.31±1.09. The mean T-scores of the forearm were comparatively lower, at −1.29± 4.34 on the left side and −1.25±3.87 on the right side.