Background: Although childhood cancer accounts for a small percentage of total cancer cases globally, it remains a critical public health issue. Studying the incidence of childhood and adolescent cancer in Ulaanbaatar, where nearly half of Mongolia's population resides, is essential for improving diagnosis and treatment quality. Objective: To investigate the patterns and trends of new childhood and adolescent cancer cases in Ulaanbaatar from 2015 to 2024. Material and Method: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted. Based on statistical data from the Center for Health Development, incidence rates per 100,000 population were calculated and analyzed using STATA 14.2 software. Results: A total of 516 new cases were recorded during the study period, with an average incidence rate of 9.0 per 100,000 population. The incidence increased by 35.2%, rising from 8.8 in 2015 to 11.9 in 2022. Regarding cancer types, hematological and lymphoid malignancies dominated (50%). The highest incidence was observed in the 0–4 age group (12.5). The male-to-female ratio was 1.4, showing a male predominance. By district, the highest overall incidence rates were observed in Bayangol (10.3 per 100,000), Songinokhairkhan (9.6), and Bayanzurkh (9.4), while the lowest rates were observed in Nalaikh (4.7) and Bagakhangai (0.0). Conclusion The incidence of childhood cancer in Ulaanbaatar has shown an increasing trend over the last decade. The patterns of cancer types, age, and sex distribution are consistent with international and Asian regional trends.

Background: The growth, development, and health of preschool children are significantly influenced by the conditions of their living and learning environments. In particular, the sanitary conditions of the outdoor environment of kindergartens play an important role in children’s physical activity, play behavior, psychological well-being, and the prevention of infectious diseases. Since children spend a considerable amount of time in kindergarten settings and actively use playgrounds and outdoor spaces, ensuring that these environments meet hygiene and safety standards is a fundamental requirement for protecting their health (Hills, A.P.et all, 2007) [1]. International studies have demonstrated that the outdoor environment of preschool educational institutions has a direct impact on children’s health and physical activity. According to these studies, the presence of green spaces, open areas, and a variety of playground equipment in kindergarten outdoor environments increases children’s physical activity and promotes their overall well-being [2]. A study conducted in Sweden has shown that the quality of the outdoor environment is associated with children’s health. The findings indicate that improvements in the outdoor conditions of kindergartens are positively associated with children’s body weight, stress levels, and overall well (Baranowski, T. Et all, 1993) [5]. Objective : To conduct a hygiene assessment of the outdoor environments of kindergartens in Bayangol District. Material and Method: This study employed a descriptive cross-sectional design. A total of 39 public kindergartens in Bayangol District, Ulaanbaatar, were selected using a census sampling approach. Data were collected using questionnaires, measurements, observations, and surveys.
Quantitative data collected during the study were coded and analyzed using Microsoft Excel, Word 2016, and SPSS version 27. The total land area of each kindergarten was measured in square meters and calculated per child based on enrollment figures. These values were compared against the MNS 6558:2015 standard to assess adequacy.
Descriptive statistical methods, including mean (x̄ ), standard deviation (SD), frequency, and percentage, were applied to summarize data obtained from observations and questionnaires on environmental conditions, sanitation, and hygiene indicators. The results were presented using tables and graphical representations. Result : The findings indicate that a substantial proportion of kindergartens operate in aging facilities, with 22% functioning for more than 36 years, while newly established institutions remain limited (5%).
Across 39 public kindergartens, the average area per child (18.3 m²) was below the national standard, with more pronounced deficits in ger districts (17.27 m²) compared to apartment areas (18.57m²), representing insufficiencies of 40.5% and 33.1%, respectively.
Although basic infrastructure was generally present, critical gaps were identified in key environmental conditions. Only 40% of playgrounds met required standards, and 8% were absent. Fire safety systems were inadequate in 32% of kindergartens, while 40% lacked proper waste sorting facilities. Playground surfaces were predominantly hard (66.7% cement), posing increased risk of injury.
The mean knowledge score of kindergarten directors on environmental and building standards was 50.6%, reflecting moderate competency with notable deficiencies in waste management, site planning, and safety-related regulations. Conclusion The environmental health conditions of kindergartens in Bayangol district do not fully meet relevant standards. Insufficient space per child and limited playground areas may negatively affect children’s health and safety.
Despite substantial work experience among directors, their knowledge of hygiene standards and environmental requirements is inconsistent and generally inadequate, particularly in technical areas such as waste management and safety regulations.

Background: Recent meta-analyses have consistently demonstrated a relationship between migraine and stroke, which is well-defined for ischemic stroke and migraine with aura, is even stronger in females on oral contraceptives or smokers. However, there seems to be no clear-cut association between stroke in migraineurs and the common vascular risk factors, at least in the young adult population. Migraineurs also run an increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke, while the association between migraine and cardiovascular disease remain poorly defined. Objective: The aim was to conduct a systematic review of published sources on the relationships between migraine and stroke in young people. Methods: The research sources were searched using keywords such as “Migraine”, “Headache”, “Migraine-infarct”, “Vascular risk factors”, “Silent stroke”, “Leukoaraiosis”, “Patent foramen ovale”, “Dissection”, “hereditary vascular disease” from the works published in international platforms such as Cochrane Library, Datebase, Medline, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, and relevant information and data were selected from the collected sources and a review article was developed. Results: It has been demonstrated that there is an increased frequency of ischemic lesions in the white matter of migraineurs, especially silent infarcts in the anterior and posterior circulation territories in patients with at least 10 attacks per month. Although there is a higher prevalence of patent foramen ovale (PFO) in migraineurs, the relationship between migraine and PFO remains controversial and PFO closure is not a recommended procedure to prevent migraine. As an increased frequency of cervical artery dissections has been observed in migrainous patients, it has been hypothesized that migraine may represent a predisposing factor for cervical artery dissection. Conclusion Based on the research evidence, there is a clear relationship between symptomatic migraine (with aura) and silent brain infarction, so early detection and treatment of vascular risk factors are necessary in migraine patients.

Human echinococcosis is a zoonotic disease (a disease that is transmitted to humans from animals) that is caused by parasites, namely tapeworms of the genus Echinococcus. A number of herbivorous and omnivorous animals act as intermediate hosts of Echinococcus. They become infected by ingesting the parasite eggs in contaminated food and water, and the parasite then develops into larval stages in the viscera. Alveolar echinococcosis usually occurs in a wildlife cycle between foxes or other carnivores with small mammals (mostly rodents) acting as intermediate hosts. Domesticated dogs and cats can also act as definitive hosts. Human infection with E. granulosus leads to the development of one or more hydatid cysts located most often in the liver and lungs, and less frequently in the bones, kidneys, spleen, muscles and central nervous system. In endemic regions, human incidence rates for cystic echinococcosis can reach more than 50 per 100 000 person-years, and prevalence levels as high as 5%–10% may occur in parts of Argentina, Peru, East Africa, Central Asia and China. In livestock, the prevalence of cystic echinococcosis found in slaughterhouses in hyperendemic areas of South America varies from 20%–95% of slaughtered animals. The highest prevalence is found in rural areas where older animals are slaughtered. Depending on the infected species involved, livestock production losses attributable to cystic echinococcosis result from liver condemnation and may also involve reduction in carcass weight, decrease in hide value, decrease of milk production, and reduced fertility. Ultrasonography imaging is the technique of choice for the diagnosis of both cystic echinococcosis and alveolar echinococcosis in humans. This technique is usually complemented or validated by computed tomography (CT) and/or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. The choice must primarily be based on the ultrasound images of the cyst, following a stage-specific approach, and also on the medical infrastructure and human resources available. Worldwide, there may be in excess of 1 million people living with these diseases at any one time. Many of these people will be experiencing severe clinical syndromes which are life-threatening if left untreated. Even with treatment, people often face reduced quality of life. For cystic echinococcosis, there is an average of 2.2% post-operative death rate for surgical patients and about 6.5% of cases relapse after an intervention, thereby requiring prolonged recovery time.

Perinatal mortality, which includes stillbirths after 22 weeks of gestation and neonatal deaths within seven days after birth, varies widely across countries. Developed nations report rates below 10 per 1,000 births, while developing countries often exceed 50. In 2022, Mongolia reported a rate of 13.2, higher than in developed nations but showing improvement. Urbanization influences perinatal mortality through factors such as air pollution, limited healthcare access, and socioeconomic inequality. In Ulaanbaatar, severe winter air pollution increases the risks of preterm birth, low birth weight, and stillbirth. In contrast, rural areas face barriers including poor access to maternal care and transportation delays. Strengthening prenatal care, neonatal services, and ensuring the safe use of medications during pregnancy are critical to reducing perinatal deaths. This literature review, based on 50 domestic and international literature sources, provides an in-depth examination of how urbanization affects perinatal mortality.

An electronic cigarette (e-cigarette or vape) is a device designed to deliver nicotine and other chemicals to the lungs in the form of an aerosol. First invented in 2003, it was initially promoted as a safer alternative to traditional cigarettes. However, research has shown that e-cigarettes pose significant health risks.
The main components of e-cigarette liquids include propylene glycol, vegetable glycerin, flavorings, and usually nicotine. Nicotine is a highly addictive substance that affects the central nervous system and has harmful effects on the brain, cardiovascular system, and mental health. Usage among adolescents and women is rapidly increasing, raising serious public health concerns.
E-cigarettes negatively affect the respiratory, cardiovascular, and digestive systems. They can cause lung inflammation, heart dysfunction, oral diseases, and gastrointestinal issues. Long-term use increases the risk of cancer and chronic diseases.
Several factors contribute to the widespread use of e-cigarettes, especially among youth. These include peer influence, lack of awareness about health risks, appealing flavors, and easy accessibility. Therefore, preventive education and targeted interventions for young people are urgently needed. It is need to study the e cigarette consumption among youth and produce evidence for urgent and clear policy making. In that reason we are introducing a literature review using more than 50 sources published in various countries.

Background: Perinatal mortality is a key indicator of maternal and newborn health. Ulaanbaatar experiences severe seasonal air pollution, which may be associated with adverse perinatal outcomes. Material and Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted using official perinatal mortality data from Ulaanbaatar for 2023–2024. A total of 53,256 births were recorded. Among these, 489 perinatal deaths were identified, including 257 stillbirths and 232 early neonatal deaths.
Perinatal mortality rates were calculated per 1,000 total births at the district level. Associations with ambient air pollutants (PM₂.₅, SO₂, CO, and NO₂) were assessed using Pearson correlation analysis and multivariable logistic regression. Maternal age, residential area, and pregnancy complications were included as covariates.
The research protocol was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of “Ach” Medical University (Approval No. 2025/04). All data were anonymized prior to analysis. Results: The overall perinatal mortality rate was 9.2 per 1,000 total births. The stillbirth rate was 4.8 per 1,000 total births, while the early neonatal mortality rate was 4.4 per 1,000 live births. District-level variation was observed, with the highest perinatal mortality rates reported in Chingeltei (18.3‰), Sukhbaatar (14.1‰), and Songinokhairkhan (10.2‰) districts. Seasonal variation was evident, with mortality peaking during winter and autumn.
PM₂.₅ concentrations exceeded national air quality standards by 3.4–8.2-fold during winter and showed a significant positive correlation with stillbirth rates (r = 0.68, p < 0.05).
In multivariable logistic regression analysis, maternal age ≥35 years (OR = 1.68, 95% CI: 1.12–2.54) and residence in ger districts (OR = 2.18, 95% CI: 1.54–3.08) were independently associated with higher odds of perinatal mortality Conclusion Perinatal mortality in Ulaanbaatar remains higher than international targets. Environmental and sociodemographic factors were significantly associated with perinatal mortality, suggesting that both environmental exposures and urban health inequalities may contribute to adverse perinatal outcomes. Targeted public health interventions are needed to reduce environmental risks and improve maternal and neonatal health.

Background: Electronic cigarettes were invented in 2003, and their use has increased rapidly worldwide, especially among adolescents. Research shows that young people are more vulnerable to nicotine addiction, and a significant proportion of users have never smoked traditional cigarettes, indicating that e-cigarettes attract new users.
Key factors contributing to the rise in e-cigarette use include a wide variety of flavors, pleasant aromas, the misconception that they are less harmful than conventional cigarettes, easy accessibility, peer influence, and curiosity. Studies also indicate that parental smoking and exposure to secondhand smoke influence adolescent use.
In Mongolia, adolescents make up 16.7% of the total population, suggesting a substantial number are at risk of e-cigarette use. Despite existing legal restrictions on sales to minors, usage among adolescents continues, highlighting the need for further research on this issue. Objective: To study the prevalence of e-cigarette use and identify influencing factors among adolescents in Songinokhairkhan District, Ulaanbaatar Materials and Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study design was employed to assess the prevalence of e-cigarette use and its associated risk factors among adolescents in Songinokhairkhan District. The study population consisted of students aged 12–18 years enrolled in local secondary schools. Using simple random sampling, 679 students from 7 out of 24 schools in the district were selected to ensure a representative sample. Eligibility was determined according to predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria, and data were collected through a structured, self-administered questionnaire covering sociodemographic characteristics, behavioral factors, and exposure to e-cigarette-related information. Data entry and management were conducted using Microsoft Excel 2021, while IBM SPSS Statistics 26 was employed for data analysis. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviations) were used to summarize participant characteristics, and inferential statistics, including Pearson correlation analysis, were applied to examine relationships between e-cigarette use and potential influencing factors. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Ethical approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Subcommittee of “Ach” Medical University (Resolution No. 5). All participants and their parents or guardians provided informed consent prior to participation, and the study was conducted in full compliance with ethical principles and relevant research guidelines. Results: A total of 679 adolescents participated in the study; 52% (n=356) were male, and 81% (n=547) were aged 15–19 years. Of the participants, 43% (n=293) reported using e-cigarettes.
Among e-cigarette users, the reasons for use included curiosity (56.5%, n=174), peer use (22%, n=68), and stress (15.9%, n=49). Regarding duration of use, 67.8% (n=137) had used e-cigarettes for 1–6 months, while 12.8% (n=26) had used them for 1-2 years.
Statistically significant differences were found between e-cigarette users and non-users in terms of gender, knowledge about nicotine content, awareness that e-cigarettes may be more harmful than regular cigarettes, presence of e-cigarette users among peers, and presence of e-cigarette users in the household (p=0.003; <0.001; 0.02; 0.008; 0.002).
Male adolescents were 1.3 times more likely to use e-cigarettes (p=0.003, O
=1.3). Adolescents aged 10-14 were 1.2 times more likely to use e-cigarettes (OR=1.2, p=0.236). Having a household member who uses e-cigarettes increased the likelihood of adolescent e-cigarette use by 1.7 times (OR=1.7; p<0.001). Conclusions E-cigarette use is common among adolescents in Songinokhairkhan District, and it is significantly influenced by sex, knowledge about e-cigarettes, and the use of e-cigarettes by family members and peers.

Liver disease accounts for approximately 2 million deaths per year worldwide and is responsible for 4% of all deaths. Acute hepatitis accounts for a smaller amount of mortality, with complications from cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases being the main causes of death. It is mostly brought on by nonalcoholic liver disease, alcohol abuse, infections (chronic hepatitis B and C viruses), and air pollution.
In the last 10 years, the number of deaths caused by hepatocellular carcinoma has been continuously increasing in Mongolia, and it ranks first in the world in terms of deaths caused by hepatocellular carcinoma per 100,000 population, which is 8 times higher than the world average.
Mongolia is one of the most polluted countries in the world. Globally it is estimated that 9 out of 10 breathe polluted air and about 7 million deaths are attributed to air pollution. Studies on epidemiology have found an association between ambient air pollution and some liver diseases, including cirrhosis, liver cancer, and fatty liver disease related to metabolic disorders. This is an issue with global health.
Exposure to PM2.5 is linked to the development of inflammation, which may be a major risk factor in the advancement of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. According to the literature review, exposure to PM is associated with systemic inflammation, a rise in plasma triglycerides, LDL and VLDL, pro inflammatory cytokines, and insulin resistance.
Many epidemiological and ecological studies were done in Mongolia on air pollution and health. However, it is still not clear how much ambient air pollution can cause cirrhosis and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease incidence in Mongolia.

: According to the elemental analysis survey, it is confirmed that the content of silicon (Si) and aluminium (Al) in coarse particles in the ambient air of Erdenet city is the highest (2457 ng/cm2, 1061.72 ng/cm2), and the content of black carbon (BC) is the highest (2699.9 ng/cm2) for the fine particles, respectively. In Orkhon Aimag, 221 new cancer cases were registered in 2023, 20.8 per 10,000 population, and 123 deaths were registered, which decreased by 20 cases from the previous year. Stomach, lung, and oesophageal cancers are the most common. Among the leading causes of diseases, diseases of the respiratory system are led by its prevalence rate of 1536 per 10,000 population, followed by the diseases of the digestive system prevalence rate of 821 per 10,000. Goal: To review the epidemiological tendency of diseases registered in Orkhon aimag between 2006 and 2022. Materials and Methods: The secondary data on outpatient 2006-2022 of Orkhon aimag was collected and analysed. All disease data followed the X International Classification of Diseases classification. The Ethical permission was obtained from the Ethical Committee at the Ach Medical University. All personnel information-related data was removed and no any name and location of personnel data was mentioned in the survey result. Results: In Orkhon Aimag, 524,927 cases of diseases were registered in 2006-2022. Respiratory system diseases were 29.82 percent of total diseases, digestive system diseases were 16.58 percent, genitourinary system diseases were 11.28 percent, cardiovascular system diseases were 10.45 percent, and skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases were 8.38 percent. Chronic heart diseases of rheumatic origin were registered for 11.59 percent of the population aged 50-54, hypertension diseases were registered 12.41 percent, and a steady increase was observed in the age of 20-54. Conclusions
1. When studying the structure of diseases among the population of Orkhon aimag, the respiratory, digestive, and genitourinary system, circulatory system and diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue are the first five leading causes of diseases and consisted 76.95% of the total number of diseases. In the study of analyzing the diseases of the circulatory system by age group and diagnosis, cases of ischemic heart disease and high blood pressure are found among children aged 15-19 years. CVD are more common among the population aged 40-54.
2. There is a tendency that skin and subcutaneous tissue diseases to be on the rise among the population.