Background: Although childhood cancer accounts for a small percentage of total cancer cases globally, it remains a critical public health issue. Studying the incidence of childhood and adolescent cancer in Ulaanbaatar, where nearly half of Mongolia's population resides, is essential for improving diagnosis and treatment quality. Objective: To investigate the patterns and trends of new childhood and adolescent cancer cases in Ulaanbaatar from 2015 to 2024. Material and Method: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted. Based on statistical data from the Center for Health Development, incidence rates per 100,000 population were calculated and analyzed using STATA 14.2 software. Results: A total of 516 new cases were recorded during the study period, with an average incidence rate of 9.0 per 100,000 population. The incidence increased by 35.2%, rising from 8.8 in 2015 to 11.9 in 2022. Regarding cancer types, hematological and lymphoid malignancies dominated (50%). The highest incidence was observed in the 0–4 age group (12.5). The male-to-female ratio was 1.4, showing a male predominance. By district, the highest overall incidence rates were observed in Bayangol (10.3 per 100,000), Songinokhairkhan (9.6), and Bayanzurkh (9.4), while the lowest rates were observed in Nalaikh (4.7) and Bagakhangai (0.0). Conclusion The incidence of childhood cancer in Ulaanbaatar has shown an increasing trend over the last decade. The patterns of cancer types, age, and sex distribution are consistent with international and Asian regional trends.

Background: The growth, development, and health of preschool children are significantly influenced by the conditions of their living and learning environments. In particular, the sanitary conditions of the outdoor environment of kindergartens play an important role in children’s physical activity, play behavior, psychological well-being, and the prevention of infectious diseases. Since children spend a considerable amount of time in kindergarten settings and actively use playgrounds and outdoor spaces, ensuring that these environments meet hygiene and safety standards is a fundamental requirement for protecting their health (Hills, A.P.et all, 2007) [1]. International studies have demonstrated that the outdoor environment of preschool educational institutions has a direct impact on children’s health and physical activity. According to these studies, the presence of green spaces, open areas, and a variety of playground equipment in kindergarten outdoor environments increases children’s physical activity and promotes their overall well-being [2]. A study conducted in Sweden has shown that the quality of the outdoor environment is associated with children’s health. The findings indicate that improvements in the outdoor conditions of kindergartens are positively associated with children’s body weight, stress levels, and overall well (Baranowski, T. Et all, 1993) [5]. Objective : To conduct a hygiene assessment of the outdoor environments of kindergartens in Bayangol District. Material and Method: This study employed a descriptive cross-sectional design. A total of 39 public kindergartens in Bayangol District, Ulaanbaatar, were selected using a census sampling approach. Data were collected using questionnaires, measurements, observations, and surveys.
Quantitative data collected during the study were coded and analyzed using Microsoft Excel, Word 2016, and SPSS version 27. The total land area of each kindergarten was measured in square meters and calculated per child based on enrollment figures. These values were compared against the MNS 6558:2015 standard to assess adequacy.
Descriptive statistical methods, including mean (x̄ ), standard deviation (SD), frequency, and percentage, were applied to summarize data obtained from observations and questionnaires on environmental conditions, sanitation, and hygiene indicators. The results were presented using tables and graphical representations. Result : The findings indicate that a substantial proportion of kindergartens operate in aging facilities, with 22% functioning for more than 36 years, while newly established institutions remain limited (5%).
Across 39 public kindergartens, the average area per child (18.3 m²) was below the national standard, with more pronounced deficits in ger districts (17.27 m²) compared to apartment areas (18.57m²), representing insufficiencies of 40.5% and 33.1%, respectively.
Although basic infrastructure was generally present, critical gaps were identified in key environmental conditions. Only 40% of playgrounds met required standards, and 8% were absent. Fire safety systems were inadequate in 32% of kindergartens, while 40% lacked proper waste sorting facilities. Playground surfaces were predominantly hard (66.7% cement), posing increased risk of injury.
The mean knowledge score of kindergarten directors on environmental and building standards was 50.6%, reflecting moderate competency with notable deficiencies in waste management, site planning, and safety-related regulations. Conclusion The environmental health conditions of kindergartens in Bayangol district do not fully meet relevant standards. Insufficient space per child and limited playground areas may negatively affect children’s health and safety.
Despite substantial work experience among directors, their knowledge of hygiene standards and environmental requirements is inconsistent and generally inadequate, particularly in technical areas such as waste management and safety regulations.

Background: Recent meta-analyses have consistently demonstrated a relationship between migraine and stroke, which is well-defined for ischemic stroke and migraine with aura, is even stronger in females on oral contraceptives or smokers. However, there seems to be no clear-cut association between stroke in migraineurs and the common vascular risk factors, at least in the young adult population. Migraineurs also run an increased risk of hemorrhagic stroke, while the association between migraine and cardiovascular disease remain poorly defined. Objective: The aim was to conduct a systematic review of published sources on the relationships between migraine and stroke in young people. Methods: The research sources were searched using keywords such as “Migraine”, “Headache”, “Migraine-infarct”, “Vascular risk factors”, “Silent stroke”, “Leukoaraiosis”, “Patent foramen ovale”, “Dissection”, “hereditary vascular disease” from the works published in international platforms such as Cochrane Library, Datebase, Medline, PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science, and relevant information and data were selected from the collected sources and a review article was developed. Results: It has been demonstrated that there is an increased frequency of ischemic lesions in the white matter of migraineurs, especially silent infarcts in the anterior and posterior circulation territories in patients with at least 10 attacks per month. Although there is a higher prevalence of patent foramen ovale (PFO) in migraineurs, the relationship between migraine and PFO remains controversial and PFO closure is not a recommended procedure to prevent migraine. As an increased frequency of cervical artery dissections has been observed in migrainous patients, it has been hypothesized that migraine may represent a predisposing factor for cervical artery dissection. Conclusion Based on the research evidence, there is a clear relationship between symptomatic migraine (with aura) and silent brain infarction, so early detection and treatment of vascular risk factors are necessary in migraine patients.

Background: According to the World Health Organization, quality of life is defined as an individual's perception of their position in life within the context of the culture and value systems in which they live, and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards, and concerns. Although numerous epidemiological studies have been conducted worldwide and in Mongolia to investigate the health effects of air pollution, studies examining its impact on the quality of life of the population before and after intervention measures remain limited. Therefore, this study aims to determine the influence of air pollution on the quality of life of residents. Objective: The objective of this study was to assess the quality of life of residents of Chingeltei District, Ulaanbaatar, and to compare their quality of life before and after the implementation of air pollution reduction interventions. Materials and Methods: A total of 330 residents participated in the study, including 165 participants surveyed in 2016 and 165 participants surveyed in 2026. The general characteristics of participants, including age, sex, educational level, marital status, and self-rated health status, were comparable between the 2016 and 2026 surveys. Overall, 47.9% of participants were male and 52.1% were female. In 2016, males accounted for 47.3% and females for 52.7% of the sample. No statistically significant difference was observed in the sex distribution between the two study periods. Results: The mean scores for Domain 1 (Physical Health) and Domain 2 (Psychological Well-being) of quality of life were similar in both survey years, whereas the Social Relationships domain showed improvement. The overall quality of life score increased slightly in 2026 compared with 2016. Furthermore, a one-unit increase in ambient PM₁₀ concentration was associated with an average decrease of 0.123 units in the overall quality of life score. Quality of life was also associated with age, marital status, educational attainment, and self-rated health status. In particular, older individuals and those who perceived their health as poor tended to report lower quality of life scores. These findings indicate that both health-related and socioeconomic factors play important roles in determining quality of life. Conclusion The quality of life of residents of Chingeltei District, Ulaanbaatar, who participated in the study is expected to improve following the implementation of air pollution reduction interventions.
The quality of life of the study participants was found to be at a moderate level and was influenced by factors such as age, marital status, and educational attainment.
Ambient air pollution was found to have a direct impact on the quality of life of the participants. In particular, an increase in PM₁₀ particulate matter concentration was associated with a decline in quality of life.

This literature review provides a comprehensive synthesis of empirical research on tuberculosis (TB) case detection mechanisms, transmission dynamics, and associated risk factors, examining diverse epidemiological contexts across the United States, the United Kingdom, India, the Netherlands, the Dominican Republic, and Mongolia.
Specifically, the selected literature evaluates the differential transmission potential between smear-positive and smear-negative cases, quantifies secondary infection risks among close contacts, and examines the clinical utility of advanced molecular diagnostics.
The analyzed data draw upon a substantial body of empirical evidence spanning six decades, focusing primarily on the timeline from 1960 to 2020. By integrating both international and national research findings, this review highlights the significance of early tuberculosis detection and clarifies patterns of disease transmission.

Background: Air pollution remains a major environmental health risk in Mongolia, particularly in Ulaanbaatar. Although a legal and policy framework for air quality management is in place, evidence on how legislation, institutional arrangements, monitoring systems, and health protection mechanisms function together remains limited. Objective: To assess air pollution levels, evidence of health impacts, and implementation of the legal and regulatory environment for air quality management in Mongolia, and to identify key gaps in comprehensive air quality management from the perspective of protecting children and other vulnerable populations. Materials and Methods: A mixed-methods assessment was conducted in 2023 combining document review, analysis of secondary air quality monitoring data, and qualitative key informant interviews. Historical monitoring data for SO₂, NO₂, PM₁₀, PM₂.₅, CO, and O₃ in Ulaanbaatar for 2008–2017 were analyzed. Relevant laws, policies, standards, and institutional arrangements were reviewed, while qualitative interview data were analyzed thematically. The findings were further contextualized using a targeted evidence update for 2021–2026 and a post hoc secondary analysis based on the five pillars of the 2026 comprehensive air pollution management framework. Results: Air pollution showed a marked seasonal pattern. Mean SO₂ concentrations were 7.57 times higher and NO₂ concentrations 1.66 times higher during the cold season than during the warm season. The 24-hour mean concentration of PM₂.₅ during the cold season was 114.10 µg/m³, while PM₁₀ was 226.77 µg/m³; cold-season PM₂.₅ was 3.9 times higher than in the warm season. Although Mongolia has an established constitutional and sectoral legal basis for air quality management, key informants identified persistent gaps in regulatory enforcement, intersectoral coordination, institutional capacity, human resources, technical capacity, economic incentives, and civil society participation. Monitoring coverage was uneven across pollutants, with limitations in spatial coverage of PM₂.₅ and integration of air quality and health data. The framework-based analysis further identified gaps across rights protection, source-specific regulation, institutional accountability, standards and monitoring, and implementation programmes. Conclusion The principal challenge for air quality governance in Mongolia is not the absence of legislation, but the gap between legal and policy provisions and their effective implementation and measurable health outcomes. Strengthening a child-centred, source-based and multisectoral air quality management system that integrates institutional accountability, monitoring, health surveillance, financing, and enforcement is warranted.

Introduction: Arsenic is a widespread environmental metalloid that poses a global health risk, particularly through contamination of drinking water. Exposure arises from natural and human activities through ingestion, inhalation, and skin absorption. Its absorption and toxicity vary by chemical form, with trivalent arsenic generally more toxic than pentavalent arsenic. Once absorbed, arsenic can accumulate in tissues and body fluids. Objective: To compare urinary arsenic concentrations among adults residing in selected mining and non-mining areas of Mongolia. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study included 422 adults from mining areas (n = 333; Bayan-Undur, Tsogtsetsii, and Khanbogd) and non-mining areas (n = 89; Bulgan and Bayandalai). Questionnaire data on sociodemographic characteristics, occupation, smoking, and dietary habits were collected. Urine samples were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Arsenic concentrations were summarized as geometric means (GMs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results: Of the 422 participants, 242 (57.3%) were women. The GM urinary arsenic concentration was 31.10 µg/L [95% CI, 28.96–33.58] in mining areas and 26.42 µg/L [95% CI, 22.98–30.39] in non-mining areas. Among mining communities, GMs were 33.45 µg/L in Bayan-Undur, 25.49 µg/L in Tsogtsetsii, and 24.82 µg/L in Khanbogd. In the non-mining communities, GMs were 29.43 µg/L in Bulgan and 23.02 µg/L in Bayandalai. Conclusion The urinary arsenic concentration was higher among adults in the selected mining areas, with variation between communities. Further analyses accounting for potential confounders, together with arsenic speciation and environmental measurements, are needed to clarify exposure sources and the contribution of mining activities.

An electronic cigarette (e-cigarette or vape) is a device designed to deliver nicotine and other chemicals to the lungs in the form of an aerosol. First invented in 2003, it was initially promoted as a safer alternative to traditional cigarettes. However, research has shown that e-cigarettes pose significant health risks.
The main components of e-cigarette liquids include propylene glycol, vegetable glycerin, flavorings, and usually nicotine. Nicotine is a highly addictive substance that affects the central nervous system and has harmful effects on the brain, cardiovascular system, and mental health. Usage among adolescents and women is rapidly increasing, raising serious public health concerns.
E-cigarettes negatively affect the respiratory, cardiovascular, and digestive systems. They can cause lung inflammation, heart dysfunction, oral diseases, and gastrointestinal issues. Long-term use increases the risk of cancer and chronic diseases.
Several factors contribute to the widespread use of e-cigarettes, especially among youth. These include peer influence, lack of awareness about health risks, appealing flavors, and easy accessibility. Therefore, preventive education and targeted interventions for young people are urgently needed. It is need to study the e cigarette consumption among youth and produce evidence for urgent and clear policy making. In that reason we are introducing a literature review using more than 50 sources published in various countries.

Human echinococcosis is a zoonotic disease (a disease that is transmitted to humans from animals) that is caused by parasites, namely tapeworms of the genus Echinococcus. A number of herbivorous and omnivorous animals act as intermediate hosts of Echinococcus. They become infected by ingesting the parasite eggs in contaminated food and water, and the parasite then develops into larval stages in the viscera. Alveolar echinococcosis usually occurs in a wildlife cycle between foxes or other carnivores with small mammals (mostly rodents) acting as intermediate hosts. Domesticated dogs and cats can also act as definitive hosts. Human infection with E. granulosus leads to the development of one or more hydatid cysts located most often in the liver and lungs, and less frequently in the bones, kidneys, spleen, muscles and central nervous system. In endemic regions, human incidence rates for cystic echinococcosis can reach more than 50 per 100 000 person-years, and prevalence levels as high as 5%–10% may occur in parts of Argentina, Peru, East Africa, Central Asia and China. In livestock, the prevalence of cystic echinococcosis found in slaughterhouses in hyperendemic areas of South America varies from 20%–95% of slaughtered animals. The highest prevalence is found in rural areas where older animals are slaughtered. Depending on the infected species involved, livestock production losses attributable to cystic echinococcosis result from liver condemnation and may also involve reduction in carcass weight, decrease in hide value, decrease of milk production, and reduced fertility. Ultrasonography imaging is the technique of choice for the diagnosis of both cystic echinococcosis and alveolar echinococcosis in humans. This technique is usually complemented or validated by computed tomography (CT) and/or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. The choice must primarily be based on the ultrasound images of the cyst, following a stage-specific approach, and also on the medical infrastructure and human resources available. Worldwide, there may be in excess of 1 million people living with these diseases at any one time. Many of these people will be experiencing severe clinical syndromes which are life-threatening if left untreated. Even with treatment, people often face reduced quality of life. For cystic echinococcosis, there is an average of 2.2% post-operative death rate for surgical patients and about 6.5% of cases relapse after an intervention, thereby requiring prolonged recovery time.

Perinatal mortality, which includes stillbirths after 22 weeks of gestation and neonatal deaths within seven days after birth, varies widely across countries. Developed nations report rates below 10 per 1,000 births, while developing countries often exceed 50. In 2022, Mongolia reported a rate of 13.2, higher than in developed nations but showing improvement. Urbanization influences perinatal mortality through factors such as air pollution, limited healthcare access, and socioeconomic inequality. In Ulaanbaatar, severe winter air pollution increases the risks of preterm birth, low birth weight, and stillbirth. In contrast, rural areas face barriers including poor access to maternal care and transportation delays. Strengthening prenatal care, neonatal services, and ensuring the safe use of medications during pregnancy are critical to reducing perinatal deaths. This literature review, based on 50 domestic and international literature sources, provides an in-depth examination of how urbanization affects perinatal mortality.