Background: Type I hypersensitivity, commonly known as an allergic reaction, is characterised by an IgE-mediated immune response triggered when foreign proteins enter the body. During allergic reactions, cytokines such as IL-4, IL-5, IL-9, and IL-13, secreted by T-helper 2 (Th2) cells, play a crucial role in activating immune effector cells like eosinophils and mast cells, which contribute significantly to airway inflammation and obstruction. Conversely, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), produced by Th1 cells, suppresses Th2-mediated responses and plays an essential role in regulating allergic inflammation. Therefore, determining the balance of cytokines produced by Th1 and Th2 cells is crucial for understanding the mechanisms underlying allergic responses. Aim: We aimed to induce an allergic response in experimental animals using ovalbumin and to determine the levels of IL-4 and IFN-γ cytokines using an in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Materials and Methods: A total of 20 female C57BL/6 mice aged 6–8 weeks were selected for the experiment and randomly divided into two groups: control and experimental groups. The concentrations of IL-4 and IFN-γ cytokines in mouse serum were determined using an in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Result: Compared to the control group, the levels of IL-4 and IFN-γ cytokines in the serum of allergic model-induced C57BL/6 mice were determined to be 513.7 pg/mL and 193.2 pg/mL, respectively. A statistically significant difference was observed in IL-4 cytokine levels between the two groups (p < 0.001). Conclusion In the allergic model group, serum levels of IL-4 cytokine were elevated, while IFN-γ cytokine levels were decreased, suggesting a predominant Th2-type immune response.

Background: Medical education has shifted toward integrated, student-centered curricula. Mongolia’s School of Medicine adopted a vertically integrated block model, yet systematic evaluation through student feedback remains limited. Aim: To evaluate the quality of the block curriculum for the “General Medicine” program based on student satisfaction, and to identify factors influencing satisfaction with course content. Materials and Methods: This analytical cross-sectional study was conducted using a questionnaire survey between January 2023 and January 2026. A total of 1,130 students (66.8% of the source population) were selected through stratified random sampling from 1,692 third- to sixth-year medical students enrolled in the Doctor of Medicine program at the School of Medicine, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences (MNUMS). The mean age of participants was 22.18±1.43 years, of whom 79.7% were female and 20.3% were male. Educational quality was evaluated across three domains: educational content (59 items), learning environment (59 items), and course organization (59 items), using a 5-point Likert scale (5=strongly agree, 4=agree, 3=neutral, 2=disagree, 1=strongly disagree). Internal consistency reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. Differences between blocks were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD post hoc test. Pearson correlation analysis was used to examine associations among domains, while factors influencing educational content were identified using multivariable linear regression analysis. Statistical significance was established at the 95% confidence level (p<0.05). Results: The questionnaire demonstrated high internal consistency across all seven blocks (Cronbach’s α=0.888–0.937). The overall mean scores were 4.00±0.78 for educational content, 3.91±0.85 for learning environment, and 3.92±0.82 for course organization. Block 6 received the highest ratings across all domains, including educational content (4.15±0.74), learning environment (4.04±0.81), and course organization (4.03±0.81), whereas Block 1A had the lowest mean scores (3.82–3.92). One-way ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences among blocks across all three domains (p≤0.005); however, the effect sizes were very small (Partial η²=0.003–0.006). Tukey’s HSD test showed that Block 6 was rated significantly higher than Block 1A in educational content by 0.226 points (95% CI: 0.103–0.349, p<0.001) and in course organization by 0.206 points (95% CI: 0.078–0.334, p<0.001). Strong positive correlations were observed among educational content, learning environment, and course organization (r=0.747–0.820, p<0.001). Academic year demonstrated weak negative correlations with all three evaluation domains (r=−0.033 to −0.045, p<0.05). Multivariable linear regression analysis indicated that learning environment (β=0.348, p<0.001) and course organization (β=0.487, p<0.001) explained 63.6% of the variance in educational content ratings (R²=0.636, F(2,5894)=5143.82, p<0.001). Conclusion The study findings demonstrated that students generally evaluated the content, learning environment, and organization of the integrated block curriculum positively, with higher ratings observed in senior-level blocks. The strong positive correlations among these dimensions suggest that they are interrelated factors influencing student satisfaction. Furthermore, multivariable linear regression analysis revealed that course organization and the learning environment had the greatest influence on the evaluation of educational content. These findings indicate that improving course scheduling, instructional organization, and the learning environment is essential for enhancing educational quality and students’ perceived value of the curriculum.

Background: Globally, medical education has been shifting from traditional discipline-based models toward student-centered, outcome-based, and integrated curricula. The Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences (MNUMS) has implemented a six-block integrated curriculum; however, evidence on how teaching methodology and assessment practices influence student learning outcomes within this framework remains limited. Aim: To determine the effect of teaching methodology and assessment practices on student learning outcomes in a block-based undergraduate medical curriculum. Materials and Methods: A retrospective study was conducted from January 2023 to January 2026 among 1,130 undergraduate medical students (years 3–6) at the School of Medicine, MNUMS. A stratified random sampling method was applied, representing 66.8% of the target population. Data were collected using a structured 185-item questionnaire based on a 5-point Likert scale. Statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, independent t-tests, one-way ANOVA with Tukey post-hoc tests, and multiple linear regression using SPSS version 26.0. Internal consistency was high (Cronbach’s α=0.90–0.98). Results: The overall mean evaluation score was 4.00±0.73. A decreasing trend in scores was observed with advancing academic years, with final-year students reporting the lowest scores (M≈3.92). Significant inter-year differences were found in Blocks 3 and 4 (p<0.05), suggesting a potential gap during the theory-to-clinical transition. Blocks 5 and 6 showed consistently high and stable scores (M≈4.10–4.15). Teaching methodology and assessment practices were strong predictors of learning outcomes (β=0.289–0.610), with regression models explaining 67–77% of the variance (R²=0.668–0.774). Elevated VIF values indicated multicollinearity among predictors. Conclusion Teaching methodology and assessment practices were found to be decisive determinants of learning outcomes within the integrated block curriculum (R²=0.668–0.774). Although overall student evaluations exceeded the mean threshold, a systematic decline observed across advancing academic years reflects the phenomenon of retrospective critical evaluation, while inter-year discrepancies in Blocks 3 and 4 indicate insufficient curricular coherence during the theory-to-clinical transition. Therefore, it is imperative to further develop the curriculum in a competency-based framework, and to reform both teaching methodology and assessment practices in alignment with clinical competence requirements.

Background: Between 2017 and 2021, the prevalence of obesity among children aged 2-19 years reached 19.7%, affecting approximately 14.7 million children, with rates of 12.7% among those aged 2-5 years and 22.2% among those aged 6-11 years. Globally, dental caries is among the most common non-communicable diseases, often leading to pain, infection, tooth loss, and reduced quality of life. In Mongolia, the prevalence of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents has increased markedly since 2010, beginning at an early age. In 2018, one in six children under five years and one in eight adolescents were overweight. Aim: This study aimed to assess selected non-communicable disease risk factors among children and adolescents. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, using Family Health Centers across all nine districts. A total of 622 children aged 6–17 years were included. Anthropometric measurements (weight, height, and waist circumference) were obtained, and body mass index (BMI) was calculated. Oral health examinations were performed to determine the Decayed, Missing, and Filled Teeth (DMFT) index. Nutritional status was classified based on age and sex-specific growth charts into normal weight, overweight, and obesity categories. Results: Among the participants, 10.29% (n=64) were overweight and 9.97% (n=62) were obese. Overweight was more prevalent among girls, whereas obesity was relatively higher among boys (p<0.001). Regarding dental caries, 37.6% (n=234) of participants had no caries (DMFT=0), 48.1% (n=299) had mild caries (DMFT=1-2), and 14.3% had moderate to severe caries (DMFT≥3). The overall prevalence of dental caries was 62.38%, with significant variation by age group: highest in children aged 6-9 years (69.9%) and lowest in those aged 15-17 years (46.1%) (p<0.001). No statistically significant association was found between BMI categories and dental caries status. Although normal weight predominated in the DMFT=0 and DMFT=1-2 groups, logistic regression adjusted for age and sex showed no significant relationship between BMI and dental caries. However, children aged 6-9 years had a significantly higher likelihood of having dental caries compared to those aged 15-17 years (OR=0.39, 95% CI: 0.24-0.63, p<0.001). Conclusions 1. Among the risk factors for non-communicable diseases (NCDs), overweight and obesity were highly prevalent among children, with one in every five children classified as overweight or obese. The prevalence among male children was approximately two times higher than that among female children (p<0.001). 2. The prevalence of dental caries among the study participants was 90.7%, with a mean caries intensity of 6.4, indicating high level of severity. Age-group analysis demonstrated that children aged 6–10 years exhibited the highest prevalence and severity of dental caries, with a prevalence of 93.5% and a mean caries intensity of 7.3.

Background: Nitric oxide (NO) is a biological messenger molecule that plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of inflammation. It has anti-inflammatory effects under physiological conditions but can act as a pro-inflammatory mediator when produced excessively under abnormal conditions. NO is involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases affecting the joints, intestines, and lungs. Therefore, compounds that inhibit NO production are considered important for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and are used clinically. The RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage-like cell line is a widely used model for inflammation studies. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, is used to activate RAW 264.7 cells and create an inflammation model. Glycyrrhiza uralensis, also known as licorice, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the Fabaceae family. It has been widely used in traditional medicine due to its anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and hepatoprotective properties. Recent studies have shown that licorice contains bioactive compounds such as glycyrrhizin, liquiritigenin, and isoliquiritigenin, which play an important role in inhibiting the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines in macrophages induced by LPS. Inula helenium L., also known as elecampane, is a perennial herbaceous plant used as an expectorant, anti-infective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-helminthic agent in various respiratory diseases. Licorice and Inula helenium are included in Mongolian traditional medicine prescriptions, but their anti-inflammatory effects have not been fully determined, which forms the basis for this research. Aim: To study the effect of Glycyrrhiza uralensis and Inula helenium extracts on the production of NO, the end product of inflammation, in RAW 264.7 macrophage cell lines stimulated with lipopolysaccharide. Materials and Methods: The non-toxic dose of the plant extracts was determined in RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage-like cell line cultures using the MTT assay. Nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 cell line cultures stimulated with lipopolysaccharide was assessed using the Griess method. Statistical analysis of the results was performed using SPSS 25.0 software, with the p-value calculated by one-way ANOVA, and the differences between groups were evaluated. Results: In RAW 264.7 cell cultures, Glycyrrhiza uralensis and Inula helenium extracts were non-toxic and promoted cell growth at doses ranging from 1 to 25 μg/ml, while a dose of 50 μg/ml was toxic and inhibited cell growth (p<0.01). When the combined plant extracts were applied to cells at doses ranging from 1 to 100 μg/ml, they were also non-toxic and enhanced cell growth, while a dose of 500 μg/ml was toxic and inhibited growth (p<0.001). In terms of nitric oxide production, Glycyrrhiza uralensis extract increased NO production in a dose- and time-dependent manner compared to the control or PBS-treated group. However, Inula helenium extract did not show a dose- or time-dependent effect on NO production. In the lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation model, licorice extract inhibited NO production at a dose of 30 μg/ml after 12 hours, and further reduced NO production in a dose- and time-dependent manner after 48 hours. Conversely, no significant changes were observed in the Inula helenium extract group at a dose of 25 μg/ml after 48 hours, but a reduction in LPS-induced NO production was observed at a dose of 25 μg/ml after 48 hours. Conclusion Glycyrrhiza uralensis extract alone increased NO production in a dose- and time-dependent manner. It also reduced LPS-induced NO production in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In contrast, Inula helenium extract inhibited LPS-induced NO production at a dose of 25 μg/ml after 48 hours.

: The increasing prevalence of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), driven by factors such as population growth, urbanization, and economic development, presents significant individuals, families, challenges and to healthcare systems. These diseases are often linked to lifestyle choices, poor diet, and physical inactivity. As a result, there is growing interest in finding alternatives to synthetic drugs, particularly those derived from medicinal plants. Medicinal plants are known to contain bioactive compounds that offer therapeutic properties with fewer side effects compared to conventional pharmaceuticals. This study explores the cytoprotective effects of Glycyrrhiza uralensis (licorice) and Inula helenium (elecampane) extracts against oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in RAW 264.7 macrophage-like cells.
The study found that both plant extracts were non-toxic at doses ranging from 1 to 25 µg/mL and promoted cell growth (p<0.01). The results suggest that these extracts support cell survival and exhibit biological activity.
To assess the antioxidant effects, various concentrations of H₂O₂ (10–400 µM) were tested, and 200 µM was found to significantly reduce cell viability. Licorice and elecampane extracts (10 µg/mL and 25 µg/ mL, respectively) enhanced cell viability and reduced oxidative damage. Both extracts significantly reduced cell death compared to the H₂O₂-only group (p<0.01), highlighting their potent antioxidant properties. Conclusion Glycyrrhiza uralensis and Inula helenium extracts demonstrated strong cytoprotective and antioxidant effects, supporting their potential as natural therapeutics for oxidative stress-related conditions.

Background: Osteoporotic fractures remain a major concern for public health and the economy. Osteoporosis is a chronic disease characterized by reduced bone density due to genetic, hormonal, mineral, and lifestyle factors. Although often asymptomatic, its primary complication is fractures, which lead to disability and loss of work capacity, impacting individuals, families, and society. In Mongolia, no long-term study has examined bone density changes and fracture risk factors, which forms the basis of this research. Aim: To assess 10-year changes in bone density and identify risk factors for fractures. Materials and Methods: This prospective cohort study was conducted at the Department of Pathophysiology, School of Biomedicine, MNUMS. We have re-enrolled 133 adults from Ulaanbaatar between November 2023 and January 2024, originally part of the ‘Study of some risk and pathophysiological factors of osteoporosis in the Mongolian population’ funded by the Ministry of Health and the Science and Technology Fund of Mongolia. Data collection included questionnaires, anthropometric measurements, bone mineral density assessments using the ‘Sunlight Mini-Omni’ bone sonometer (Beammed, USA) Results: The mean age of participants was 54.4±9.6 years (N=133), with 33.1% (n=44) male and 66.9% (n=89) female. Among the participants, 51.1% had a history of bone fractures, with forearm fractures comprising 10.5% and other types of fractures accounting for 40.7%. The bone fractures was significantly higher among elderly individuals and those diagnosed with osteoporosis (p<0.05). The T-score was significantly lower in the fracture group than in the non-fracture group (p<0.05). Vitamin D deficiency was identified as a significant risk factor for fractures (p<0.05). Conclusion All participants’ bone density has decreased over the decade. Bone fractures are more common in elderly and people with osteoporosis. Inadequate vitamin D intake is a significant risk factor for bone fractures.