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Modernization Process of the Medical Education in Korea.

Korean Journal of Medical History.1994;3(1):72-129.

In Korea, there had been the public educational system of the traditional medicine since Shilla Kingdom, and Koryo government had the selection system of the medical doctors for the public services from the reign of King Kwangjong (AD 958). These traditional system had been maintained until King Kojong of Chosun Kingdom (AD 1885), when the traditional hospital with medical school Hye-Min-Seo was replaced by Che-Jung-Won, the first modern hospital in Korea, where the Western medical service for people and practical medical education were performed by western missionary doctors. But the medical education in Che-Jung-Won did not last long because people and government at that time did not recognize the value of the Western medicine and some medical missionaries had personal difficulties. After the reformation of 1894 when the health administration and service based upon Western medicine were planned, the government of Chosun Kingdom needed the personnel who could practice the Western medicine. So government began by establishing the short-term (three month) Training School for the personnel of the smallpox vaccination in 1897, and founded the first public medical school named Eui-Hak-Kyo of three-year course for educating the medical students in 1899. Although medical subjects were taught by Japanese lecturers in the beginning year of the school, Korean medical doctors (of whom Kim Ik-nam was the first), graduates from the medical schools in Japan actively participated in the teaching the Korean students from the next year. But with the 1905 'Protectorate Treaty', Eui-Hak-Kyo was renamed Tae-Han-Eui-Won Eui-Yook-Bu with the authority running the school under the Japanese hands. From then almost all the processes of modernization in medicine were controlled by Japanese. On the other hand, the first private medical school named Che-Jung-Won Eui-Hak-Kyo began to be run by Dr OR Avison, an medical missionary of the US Northern Presbyterian Church from the year 1899. After the 1910 annexation of Korea by Imperial Japan, the system and the contents of the medical education were reorganized according to those in Japan. So the modernization of medicine and medical education in Korea was not for Korea and Korean people but for the convenience of Imperial Japanese administration. The March First Movement of 1919 made the Japanese policy changed. In 1925 Japanese government established the Kyongsung Imperial University Medical School whose faculty were mainly composed of the professors of the Kyongsung Medical College , and which was also for the Japanese ruling, not for Korean people. As the Kyongsung Imperial University Medical School was founded, the Kyongsung Medical College became independent from the government-general hospital and several Korean doctors were installed as the professors of the school. After the 1931 war between Japan and China, Pyongyang and Taegu Medical Colleges in 1933 and Kwangju and Hamheung Medical Colleges in 1944 were founded, but which are thought to be also for the militaristic Japanese administration, not for the improvement of the medical education in Korea. In colonial Korea there were two private medical schools. One was Severence Union Medical School, the other was Kyongsung Women's Medical College for women whose faculty were mainly composed of Korean although which was operated by the Japanese master. The former, the late self of private Che-Jung-Won, was one whose educational and administrative staff were composed of the western missionary and Korean doctors and so whose administration and education were relatively freely performed from the Japanese government.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; History of Medicine, Medieval ; History of Medicine, Modern ; Korea

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Analysis of Services of Medical Missionaries During the Late Yi-Dynasty and the Era of the Japanese Occupation in Korea.

Sang Ik HWANG ; Chang Duck KEE

Korean Journal of Medical History.1994;3(1):57-71.

Authors investigated the services of medical missionaries during the late Yi-Dynasty and the era of the Japanese Occupation in Korea. The information and materials were got from the following primary sources: The Searching Report of the European and American Residents in Korea (1907-1942); The Korean Mission Field, Vol 1 (1905.11) - Vol 37 (1941.11); Christian Newspapers, No 1 (1915.2) - No 1128 (1937.7). Through this study we found that 280 medical missionaries came to Korea to do the medical services during the period from 1884 to 1941. Among them 133 were medical doctors, 5 dentists, 6 pharmacists and 136 nurses. And it was found that 71 medical missionaries (25%) belonged to US Northern Presbyterian Church, 50 (18%) to US Northern Methodist Church, 38 (14%) to US Southern Presbyterian Church, each 32 (11%) to US Southern Methodist Church and Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (Anglican Church), 20 (7%) to Canadian Presbyterian Church, each 12 (4%) to Australian Presbyterian Church and Catholic Church, 9 (3%) to Seventh Day Adventist Church, and 31 Western medical personnels without connection to any missionary society. So we confirmed that most of the missionary medical services during this period were performed by the American missionary societies, which was compatible with the acceptible idea. The average duration of services by the medical missionaries was 13.0 years, which was about 5 years longer than that of the non-missionary Western doctors and nurses in the same period. The medical missionaries were more in number during the era of the Japanese Occupation than during the late Yi-Dynasty, however, their socio-cultural significance seemed to be higher in the late Yi-Dynasty. And authors found that the nearly all of the medical services by the missionaries were carried out in the regions belonging to the respective missionary society.
Christianity/*history ; Colonialism/history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Japan ; Korea ; Missions and Missionaries/*history ; Religion and Medicine ; Western World

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Textbooks of Western Medicine in the Early Modernization Period.

Hong Gwan SEO

Korean Journal of Medical History.1994;3(1):49-56.

The first modern hospital, royal Kwang-Hye-Won (House of Extended Grace) was established in April of 1885, whose name was changed into royal Che-Jung-Won (House of Helpfulness) in several days. Private(not royal) Je-Jung-Won opened its Medical School in 1899. And the teachers composed of western missionaries taught some Korean student-assistants the Western medicine with English textbooks in English. With very low effectiveness of teaching due to language barrier, Dr. Avison, the principal of that school decided to write medical textbooks in Korean. At first he tried to translate Henry Gray's Anatomy of 1859. In the effort he referred some Chinese and Japanese medical books. With that reason, we can find many Japanese style medical terms in some medical books of his. On the other hand, Eui-Hak-Kyo(The Medical School) was established by the Government of Dae-Han Empire in 1899. The teaching staff of the school published medical textbooks in Korean, some of which were written by Japanese doctors. After the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, Japanese government forced teachers of the school to teach with Japanese medical books and to speak Japanese in teaching. In 1915 the Act of Private Education was declared, which forced Japanese spoken in teaching even in the private medical school, Severance Medical School(later self of private Che-Jung-Won). In these ways, Japanese medical terms of Chinese letter were introduced without prudent consolidation, which evoke not a few problems in medical terms and education still now.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Japan ; Korea ; Textbooks/*history ; Translations ; Western World

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The Early History of Private Education of Western Medicine for Women Women's Medical Training Institute 1928 to 1938.

Chang Duck KEE

Korean Journal of Medical History.1993;2(1):85-97.

As early as in the 6th year of King Taejo of the Ch sen Dynasty(1406), there emerged a medical training organization which turned out women doctors who would engage in the treatment of diseases for women and conduct the service of midwifery. Of course the healing art those women doctors adopted at that time was Oriental medicine, and due to the strict Confucian prejudice against women, the medical treatment for women did not go beyond the limit of home treatment. Such being the situation. from the viewpoint of Western medicine, it is hard to say that there existed women doctors in Korea before the advent of the Kyongsong Women's Medical Training Institute. Such social situations and the customs peculiar to the Korean women badly required the existence of women doctors. However, the Ch sen Government-General which was the ruler of the Korean Peninsula at that time, was quite indifferent to the urgent need. In the meantime, Dr. Rosetta S. Hall, an American Methodistic woman doctor, fully aware of these situations through her long experience of medical service for Korean women privately encouraged Korean women to study medicine while personally conducting medical education for them by establishing a medical training institute. At that time, Kil Chung-Hee, a woman doctor, and her husband Dr. Kim Tak-Won actively supported Dr. Hall for educational work for women. They succeeded to the work of operating the training institute established by Dr. Hall and made strenuous efforts to get it elevated to the status of a women's medical college. There was active participation in their undertaking and a committee for the formation of a foundation was organized. When the attainment of the goal was imminent Kim Chong-Ik a man of seat wealth from Sunchon, Chulla South Province, willed a Japanese a large amount of money totaling six hundred and fifty thousand won (three hundred thousand won as a fund for the establishment of a women's medical college and three hundred and fifty thousand won for the starting of a T.B. sanatorium). Thus, the Women's Medical College was opened by the hand of the Japanese. Fortunately, however, the faculty was composed of young and enthusiastic Korean doctors, among whom were professors with great interest in Women's education. This resulted in the illusion to some degree of Korean national spirit into the mind of the students who were forced to receive Japanization education. In consideration of these points, the acquirement of fund for the establishment of the Kyongsong Women's Medical College was made possible by the efforts of Kim Tak-Won who endeavored to promote the Kyongsong Women's Medical Training Institute to the status of a regular college, the activities of the College Establishment Committee and the generosity of Kim Chong-Ik who was moved by the enthusiastic activities of the Committee. In this regard it may not be wrong to say that even though the Kyongsong Women's Medical College was opened by the Japanese due to the requirement of the times, it was a continuation of the Kyongsong Women's Medical Training Institute because the educational philosophy of the professors of the former was the same as that of the professors of the latter.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Physicians, Women/*history

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Women's Medical Training Institute 1928 to 1938.

Sang Duk KIM

Korean Journal of Medical History.1993;2(1):80-84.

Historical development of Women's Medical Training Institute in Seoul, Korea, between 1928 to 1938, which had been elevated to the Kyongsong Women's Medical College in Seoul. Korea, under the Japanese Imperial Government will be presented. The College, after flew changes of its policies, finally became as Medical College of the Korea University in 1971. Dr. Rosetta Sherwood Hall, a medical missionary from New York who had spent for 44 years in Korea, witnessed the necessity of having woman doctors in Korea in order to save those shy Korean ladies silently suffering from sickness. As an initial step to implement women's medical education, Dr. R.S. Hall together with Drs. Kil Chung-Hee and Kim Tak-Won founded the Chosun Women's Medical Training Institute in 1928, with a purpose to eventually elevate it to a Women's Medical School. The Institute had a five-years course of curriculum with one year of pre-medical and four years of medical education. In 1933, Dr. Hall, at the age of 66, had to retire and return to America. Therefore, the management of the Institute had been transferred to Drs. Kim T.W and Kil C.H., but under a new name of Kyongsong Women's Medical Training Institute, upon the request from Japanese Government. The Institute had moved to a new location and continued to expand its curriculum, and furthermore, a hospital had been annexed. In order to elevate the Institute to a medical school, a committee had been formed in 1934, and pursued its goal very actively, as had been reported in several newspapers in those days. The organizing committee members were consisted of over 70 prominent Koreans from all walks of life with Mr. Park Young-Hyo as the chairman, naturally, Japanese Government had felt such a movement distasteful, as evidenced by the fact that they even attempted to abolish pre-existing educational organization for Koreans. A notable philanthropist Mr. Kim Chong-Ik joined as an active member of the above committee in 1936. However, unexpectedly, Mr. Kim C.I. became ill and passed away on May 1937 with his will to promote the Institute to a Women's Medical College, leaving a large sum of assets. The following year 1938, the Kyongsong Women's Medical Training Institute had been elevated to the Kyongsong Women's Medical College and both the students and various teaching materials of the Institute had been transferred to the Medical College. Although Japanese took over total management of the College and those members who set the important ground work for that Medical College were rejected to join as an active member, their management only lasted for 7 years until Korea liberated from the Japanese ruling on August 15, 1945.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Physicians, Women/*history ; Schools, Medical/*history

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The Medical Philosophy of Choe Han-Ki.

In Sok YEO ; Jae Hoon RHO

Korean Journal of Medical History.1993;2(1):66-79.

Choe Han-Ki was a philosopher of the 19th century who resided in Seoul. He accumulated vast amount of knowledge of Western science and on the basis of them he built his own philosophical system different from those of the philosophers before him. Not only has he wrote books on philosophy, but many books on science as well. Among them Shin-Ki-Chon-Hum is a very unique medical book which reveals his original medical philosophy. He acquired medical knowledge through the medical books put into Chinese by missionary doctor Hobson and on the basis of them he criticized traditional medicine. He criticized traditional medicine because it explained vital phenomenon through the reductionist theory, such as Oh-Haeng(theory of five phases). And he also criticized it because it lacked in exact anatomical knowledge and that the exact origin of the disease was not known and it had limitations on treatment. He also criticized Western Medicine because it supposed God as a creator. He saw the possibility of communication between Western Medicine and traditional medicine. He didn't regard medicine as concerning disease and health only, but it included everything in it. His philosophy of medicine is just a part of his original system of science, Ki-Hak.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Korea ; Philosophy, Medical/*history

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The Transition of Medical Terms in Korea between 1935 and 1985.

Hong Gwan SEO ; Chang Yup KIM

Korean Journal of Medical History.1993;2(1):59-65.

Korean modern medicine was imported from American missionaries in the late 19th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, Japanese medicine, which was influenced by German medicine, was imported along with the Japanese invasion. After the liberation of Korea, however, American medicine influenced the Korean Medicine in a broad spectrum : for example, medical science, medical instruments, and health care system. Not only an unstable social environment but also the rapid development of medical science changed medical terms. In order to investigate the 50-year transition of medical terms in Korea, we compare the names of diseases in 'Cho-Sun-Eu-Bo' published in 1934, 1935 and 1936 with those in the 'Journal of the Korean Medical Association' published in 1985. The names of diseases were classified according to number 17 classification method of ICD9(International Classification of Disease). The proportionate ratio of the number of names of disease between 1935 and 1985 was 3.2 in neoplasms, 3.1 in diseases of the circulatory system, and 2.7 in mental disorders. The causes of the transition of the names of diseases were three. The first was the simple change of the rules of spelling, the second was the change of the concept of disease, and the third was the subdivision of diseases. 26.1%(N=37) of the names of diseases in 1935(N=142) were changed by 1985.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; *Terminology

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Smallpox Epidemics and Folk's Responses in the late Chosun Period.

Ock Joo KIM

Korean Journal of Medical History.1993;2(1):38-58.

Smallpox was one of the most dreadful epidemic diseases in Korea until the early twentieth century. In the Chosun period, smallpox came to prevail more frequently and vigorously, and many people died of the disease. To cope with smallpox, the society of Chosun had various modes of measures, though they were not always effective, which included the government's rituals, medical men's prescriptions, and folk's recipes. Among various responses to smallpox, the recipes of folklore seem to be very interesting. While attitude toward other contagious diseases(e.g., typhoid fever, or malaria) mainly consisted of exorcism, smallpox was believed to be the passage of the smallpox deity, Sonnim(which means guest), through the body of patient for certain time span, and gods of smallpox were treated hospitably. This attitude toward smallpox was deeply rooted in Korean shamanism, and partly in the natural history of the disease. From 1876 smallpox vaccination was reintroduced and practiced. There were, however, a lot of difficulties in practice of vaccination due to distrust and prejudice. And traditional dealings with smallpox, in spite of vaccination, didn't disappear even after the Japanese compulsory occupation.
Disease Outbreaks/*history ; English Abstract ; *Folklore ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, Modern ; Human ; Korea ; Magic/*history ; *Religion and Medicine ; Shamanism/*history ; Smallpox/*history ; Vaccination/history

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The Early History of National Education of Western Medicine in Korea.

Chang Duck KEE

Korean Journal of Medical History.1993;2(1):10-37.

On the record 1995 is the 100th anniversary of Western medical education in our country which began with the opening of the Vaccinators' Training Center, but the actual history of Korea's Western medical education is 97 years old. To become vaccinators the students underwent training for a month including the manufacturing of vaccine and the practicing of vaccination. These vaccinators were the first vaccination specialists trained in Western medicine in our country. Their service included vaccination as well as education. These professionals of Western medicine. in spite of a short period of their training, saved countless human lives, contributing greatly to the welfare of society. In the years 1897-1898, there were quite a number of foreign missionary medical doctors in Korea, who were providing Western medical education each according to their own need. Some of the examples were Wells and Follwell in Pyongyang, Johnson in Taegu, and Scranton, Avison, and Rosetta Hall in Seoul. They were all medical doctors who received regular medical education and were engaged in clinical medicine. Meanwhile, Japanese medical doctors, who were educated in Western medicine, were operating hospitals in Pusan, Wonsan, Inchun, and Seoul. They did not provide medical education, but they employed Koreans as their assistants. Under such circumstances. the Chosun Government-General belatedly inaugurated the Uihakkyo Medical School. This medical school had a three-year course of Western medicine, but there was only two instructor trained in Western medicine and the remaining teaching members were all doctors of Oriental medicine. By regulations the curriculum included such subjects of Western medicine as zoology, botany, chemistry, physics, anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, diagnosis, internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, ophthalmology, etc. The fact that to teach these subjects, non-medical persons were nominated as professors simple because they were equipped with knowledge of medicine, law and medicaments, makes it easy for us to imagine what the contents of the lectures would have been. After 1905, the Western medical education in Korea was severely interfered in by the Japanese authorities, and the name of the medical school was changed several times -Taehan Hospital Educational Department, Medical Educational Department, Attached Medical School, etc. The entire faculty of this medical school consisted of Japanese. Accordingly, the control over Government medical education in Korea was placed in the power of the Japanese authorities. To learn Western medicine Korean students had to endure humiliation and disdain from Japanese professors who took pleasure in showing off their talent and knowledge and satisfying their sense of superiority. After 1910 when Korea was annexed to Japan, Koreans had to receive Japanese education unconditionally. The government Uihakkyo Medical School was transformed into the status of a medical training center and was attached to the Medical Educational Section of the Government-General Hospital, barely retaining the name of a medical school. Korean students received medical education submissively suffering the haughtiness, disdain and prejudice from Japanese professors and follow students. Even after their graduation, Korean students had to meet the same situation. Thus, some academically eager graduates, for the purpose of furthering their study and research under liberal circumstances, went to Germany, which at that time was known for its most advanced medical sciences in the world. However, since the Japanese authorities including the professors did not make much of the Koreans studying in Germany, some of the graduates who were eager for further study had to continue their study under the Japanese professors. Thus the achievements of the Korean medical pioneers were the product of their sacrificial efforts and hardships. In this connection the author has described the achievements of the Korean professors, though small in number (5 professors, 6 assistant professors, and 10 instructors), who did their study and research at their alma mater. Also given in this article are data on the dissertations by 104 of our medical pathfinders, including the titles, the dates when degrees were awarded and the names of colleges where their dissertations were defended etc.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Western World

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A Medico-historical Review on Biomedicine and Its Limitations and Problems.

Tae Jun LEE

Korean Journal of Medical History.1993;2(1):1-9.

Biomedicine is a conceptualized technical term for current medicine in a historical perspective. Physics, chemistry and biology are considered to be the sciences basic to biomedicine. This medical model depends essentially on a mechanistic approach based on understanding of the structure and function of the body. The biomedical model assumes that illness can be explained in terms of morphological, physiological and biochemical derangements or dysfunctions(a reductionist concept of disease). As medicine of primitive ages and ancient times can be conceptualized in terms of witch-philosophical medicine, medicine of the Middle Ages can be conceptualized in terms of religious medicine. The early steps by which modern medical sciences have been gradually built up appeared in the 10th and 17th century. In those ages direction and methodology forward scientific medicine were established. Medicine of Renaissance ages can be conceptualized in terms of religious medicine. The early steps by which modern medical sciences have been gradually built up appeared in the 10th century. In those ages direction and methodology forward scientific mechanical medicine. Remarkable progress has been made in biomedicine in the last three centuries. There has been a rapid change of society in this century, and sciences and technology play a leading role in the changes. The technical explosion in modern society has exerted a great influence on medical field. Hospital care has gained its strength from armament of technical facilities. This type of delivery of medical care leads to costly medical expenses and dehumanizing medical care. Pattern of mortality and morbidity neglect the demographic transformation of industrial societies. Demographic changes lead to fundamental changes in disease pattern. Medical problems that are a complex mixture of physical, psychological and social elements have noticeably increased recently. A biomedical approach appears to be inadequate for such a pattern of disease. A new biopsychosocial medical model is put forward. This model is assisted by the formulations of general system theory(Von Bertanffy). As of today when we are approaching the 21st century, traditional medical education, medical training, and medical services are needed to make up for its weak points in terms of biopsychosocial medical model.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, Ancient ; History of Medicine, Early Modern ; History of Medicine, Medieval ; History of Medicine, Modern ; *Medicine ; Science/*history

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