Three-dimensional Electrical Impedance Tomography for Monitoring Gastric Hemorrhage

Zi-Han ZHAO; Bo SUN; Jing-Shi HUANG; Zhi-Wei LI; Yang WU; Nan LI; Jia-Feng YAO; Tong ZHAO

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Three-dimensional Electrical Impedance Tomography for Monitoring Gastric Hemorrhage

VernacularTitle:基于区域聚类三维电阻抗成像的胃出血检测方法
Author: Zi-Han ZHAO ¹ ; Bo SUN ¹ ; Jing-Shi HUANG ² ; Zhi-Wei LI ³ ; Yang WU ⁴ ; Nan LI ⁵ ; Jia-Feng YAO ⁶ ; Tong ZHAO ¹
Author Information

1. School of Mechanical and Precision Instrument Engineering, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an 710048, China
2. International Institute of Creative Design, Shanghai University of Engineering Science, Shanghai 201620, China
3. College of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China
4. College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
5. School of Mechano-Electronic Engineering-State Key Laboratory of Electromechanical Integrated Manufacturing for High-Performance Electronic Equipment, Xidian University, Xi’an 710071, China
6. College of Physics & Optoelectronic Engineering, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
Publication Type:Journal Article
Keywords: gastric bleeding; three-dimensional electrical impedance tomography (3D-EIT); regional clustering constraint; image reconstruction; noninvasive monitoring
From: Progress in Biochemistry and Biophysics 2026;53(4):1062-1075
CountryChina
Language:Chinese
Abstract: ObjectiveGastric hemorrhage is one of the most common and life-threatening emergencies of the upper digestive tract. Early identification and continuous monitoring are essential for reducing rebleeding rates and mortality, particularly within the critical early hours after onset. Although endoscopy and radiological imaging can accurately localize bleeding sites, these approaches are invasive, resource-intensive, and unsuitable for continuous bedside monitoring. Electrical impedance tomography (EIT), as a noninvasive and radiation-free functional imaging technique, offers real-time visualization of conductivity distribution and has the potential for detecting intragastric bleeding based on the electrical contrast between blood and surrounding gastric tissues. In this study, a three-dimensional gastric EIT (3D-gEIT) framework is proposed to achieve noninvasive, real-time, and dynamic monitoring of gastric hemorrhage, with emphasis on spatial localization and quantitative volume assessment. MethodsA three-dimensional upper-abdominal simulation model incorporating the stomach, gastric wall, gastric contents, and surrounding tissues was established. Three electrode configurations, namely the dual layer ring, the four layer staggered ring, and the opposed dual plane array, were designed and systematically compared to evaluate their influence on depth sensitivity and spatial resolution. Based on the Tikhonov-Noser hybrid regularization scheme, a region-clustering constraint was introduced to develop the TK-Noser-RCC algorithm. This approach aggregates spatially adjacent elements with similar conductivity variations, thereby enhancing structural continuity and suppressing isolated noise artifacts. To validate the proposed framework, an upper-abdominal physical phantom was constructed using agar to simulate background tissue conductivity. Hemispherical high-conductivity inclusions with volumes ranging from 10 ml to 50 ml were attached to the inner gastric wall to mimic localized bleeding under different gastric filling states. Boundary voltages were acquired under a 120 kHz excitation current and reconstructed using the TK-Noser-RCC algorithm. Furthermore, an in vivo animal experiment was performed using a porcine model with adult-scale abdominal dimensions. A total of 100 ml of autologous blood was injected incrementally into the stomach to simulate progressive gastric hemorrhage, and time-difference EIT reconstruction was conducted at each injection stage to assess the dynamic system response under physiological conditions. ResultsSimulation results demonstrated that the opposed dual-plane electrode array achieved superior depth sensitivity distribution and spatial resolution. For a 40 ml hemorrhage model, the average ICC and SSIM improved by 55.9% and 38.8% compared with the dual-layer ring configuration, and by 64.0% and 39.5% compared with the four-layer staggered configuration. The proposed region-clustering constraint significantly enhanced reconstruction stability. Under added Gaussian noise of 40 dB and 30 dB, ICC values remained approximately 0.85, indicating effective artifact suppression and preservation of boundary integrity. In physical phantom experiments, reconstructed hemorrhage volumes increased approximately linearly with the preset hemispherical volumes, and the reconstructed high-conductivity regions closely matched the actual bleeding locations. Both empty-stomach and full-stomach conditions were evaluated, demonstrating that the opposed dual-plane configuration maintained stable imaging performance across varying gastric contents. In the animal experiment, reconstructed low-impedance regions expanded progressively with increasing injected blood volume. The spatial localization of the hemorrhage remained stable throughout the procedure, and no significant artifacts were observed. Quantitative analysis showed that reconstructed volume and average conductivity variation exhibited an approximately linear growth trend with injected blood volume, confirming the sensitivity of the system to dynamic intragastric conductivity changes. ConclusionThe proposed 3D-gEIT framework enables quantitative reconstruction of gastric hemorrhage volume and spatial distribution with improved depth sensitivity, structural continuity, and noise robustness compared with conventional EIT approaches. By integrating optimized electrode configuration and a region-clustering-constrained reconstruction algorithm, the system provides stable dynamic monitoring under both controlled phantom conditions and in vivo physiological environments. This method offers a noninvasive, real-time, and low-cost imaging strategy for early diagnosis, postoperative monitoring, and bedside surveillance of gastric bleeding.