In this paper the state of emotion study using electroencephalogram is systemically introduced. The methods for emotion study including the analyses of EEG frequency spectrum, evoked potentials, event-related potentials and the non-linear dynamical analysis are summarized, and the latest development is reviewed. Lastly the effect of emotion on other brain functions, e.g. memory, is discussed. In the paper the developments of emotion studies are also predicted.
Brain ; physiology ; Electroencephalography ; Emotions ; physiology ; Evoked Potentials ; physiology ; Humans

The parabrachial nucleus (PBN) integrates interoceptive and exteroceptive information to control various behavioral and physiological processes including breathing, emotion, and sleep/wake regulation through the neural circuits that connect to the forebrain and the brainstem. However, the precise identity and function of distinct PBN subpopulations are still largely unknown. Here, we leveraged molecular characterization, retrograde tracing, optogenetics, chemogenetics, and electrocortical recording approaches to identify a small subpopulation of neurotensin-expressing neurons in the PBN that largely project to the emotional control regions in the forebrain, rather than the medulla. Their activation induces freezing and anxiety-like behaviors, which in turn result in tachypnea. In addition, optogenetic and chemogenetic manipulations of these neurons revealed their function in promoting wakefulness and maintaining sleep architecture. We propose that these neurons comprise a PBN subpopulation with specific gene expression, connectivity, and function, which play essential roles in behavioral and physiological regulation.
Parabrachial Nucleus/physiology* ; Wakefulness/physiology* ; Neurons/physiology* ; Emotions ; Sleep

Emotion recognition will be prosperious in multifarious applications, like distance education, healthcare, and human-computer interactions, etc. Emotions can be recognized from the behavior signals such as speech, facial expressions, gestures or the physiological signals such as electroencephalogram and electrocardiogram. Contrast to other methods, the physiological signals based emotion recognition can achieve more objective and effective results because it is almost impossible to be disguised. This paper introduces recent advancements in emotion research using physiological signals, specified to its emotion model, elicitation stimuli, feature extraction and classification methods. Finally the paper also discusses some research challenges and future developments.
Electrocardiography ; Electroencephalography ; Emotions ; physiology ; Facial Expression ; Gestures ; Humans ; Models, Theoretical

There are two modes to display panoramic movies in virtual reality (VR) environment: non-stereoscopic mode (2D) and stereoscopic mode (3D). It has not been fully studied whether there are differences in the activation effect between these two continuous display modes on emotional arousal and what characteristics of the related neural activity are. In this paper, we designed a cognitive psychology experiment in order to compare the effects of VR-2D and VR-3D on emotional arousal by analyzing synchronously collected scalp electroencephalogram signals. We used support vector machine (SVM) to verify the neurophysiological differences between the two modes in VR environment. The results showed that compared with VR-2D films, VR-3D films evoked significantly higher electroencephalogram (EEG) power (mainly reflected in α and β activities). The significantly improved β wave power in VR-3D mode showed that 3D vision brought more intense cortical activity, which might lead to higher arousal. At the same time, the more intense α activity in the occipital region of the brain also suggested that VR-3D films might cause higher visual fatigue. By the means of neurocinematics, this paper demonstrates that EEG activity can well reflect the effects of different vision modes on the characteristics of the viewers' neural activities. The current study provides theoretical support not only for the future exploration of the image language under the VR perspective, but for future VR film shooting methods and human emotion research.
Arousal ; Electroencephalography ; Emotions/physiology* ; Humans ; Motion Pictures ; Virtual Reality

Objective: To explore the effect of emotional optimization of workplace employees in immersive virtual natural environment. Methods: In July 2020, 15 subjects were selected to complete two groups of treadmill walking training experiments in virtual natural environment and daily environment respectively. At the same time, the subjects' skin electrical (EDA) , pulse frequency (Pf) , respiratory frequency (Rf) physiological data and Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) data before and after walking were collected; the mean value of three dimensions of SAM and the emotion difference before and after the experiment were calculated. The differences of physiological indexes and subjective mood changes of subjects were tested by paired sample t-test. Results: Compared with the daily environment, the ΔEDA, ΔPf and ΔRf of the subjects in the virtual natural environment were all decreased , and the differences were statistically significant (P<0.05). There were statistically significant differences in pleasure and arousal between subjects before and after using the virtual natural environment (P <0.05). Compared with the daily environment, the Δpleasure degree of subjects using the virtual natural environment increased, and the Δarousal degree and Δdominance degree decreased, and the differences were statistically significant (P <0.05). Conclusion: Walking in virtual natural environment can help subjects improve their mood, relax and improve the regulation ability of autonomic nervous system.
Arousal ; Emotions/physiology* ; Heart Rate ; Humans ; Virtual Reality ; Workplace

Cognitive and emotional dysfunction in depressed patients has been broadly researched. However, the physiological mechanism of the emotional impairment is still obscure. In this study, according to the ethical principles and the procedures of informed consent, we enrolled 16 depression patients and 16 normal subjects in a "learning-judgment" cognitive task. Emotional faces were chosen and used as the visual stimuli, while the subjects' scalp electroencephalographs (EEG) were recorded. We calculated the coherences of the event-related EEG signals between different functional brain regions and used the repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA) to analyze the coherences. The results revealed, (1) The depressed patients had a significantly lower inter-hemisphere coherence than did the normal controls at frontal sites across all EEG basic rhythms; (2) The inter-hemispheric coherence of EEG beta activity was significantly correlated with the emotional processing during 1-200 ms after stimulus onset, and the synchronicity with the negative emotion stimulus was higher than that with neutral and positive stimuli; (3) The main effect of race was found at delta and theta bands at about 401-600 ms after stimulus onset. Moreover, the connectivity of inter-hemisphere for own-race stimulus was stronger than that for other-race stimulus.
Brain ; physiopathology ; Cognition ; physiology ; Depression ; physiopathology ; psychology ; Electroencephalography ; methods ; Emotions ; physiology ; Evoked Potentials ; physiology ; Humans

Evidence suggests that explicit reappraisal has limited regulatory effects on high-intensity emotions, mainly due to the depletion of cognitive resources occupied by the high-intensity emotional stimulus itself. The implicit form of reappraisal has proved to be resource-saving and therefore might be an ideal strategy to achieve the desired regulatory effect in high-intensity situations. In this study, we explored the regulatory effect of explicit and implicit reappraisal when participants encountered low- and high-intensity negative images. The subjective emotional rating indicated that both explicit and implicit reappraisal down-regulated negative experiences, irrespective of intensity. However, the amplitude of the parietal late positive potential (LPP; a neural index of experienced emotional intensity) showed that only implicit reappraisal had significant regulatory effects in the high-intensity context, though both explicit and implicit reappraisal successfully reduced the emotional neural responses elicited by low-intensity negative images. Meanwhile, implicit reappraisal led to a smaller frontal LPP amplitude (an index of cognitive cost) compared to explicit reappraisal, indicating that the implementation of implicit reappraisal consumes limited cognitive control resources. Furthermore, we found a prolonged effect of implicit emotion regulation introduced by training procedures. Taken together, these findings not only reveal that implicit reappraisal is suitable to relieve high-intensity negative experiences as well as neural responses, but also highlight the potential benefit of trained implicit regulation in clinical populations whose frontal control resources are limited.
Humans ; Emotional Regulation ; Electroencephalography ; Evoked Potentials/physiology* ; Cognition/physiology* ; Emotions/physiology*

OBJECTIVETo observe the effects of repeated subconvulsive electrical stimuli to the hippocampus on the emotional behavior and spatial learning and memory ability in rats.

METHODSOne hundred and eight male Wistar rats were randomized into 3 groups. Animals in group SE (n = 42) were given subconvulsive electrical stimulation to the hippocampus through a constant pulsating current of 100 mu A with an intratrain frequency of 25 Hz, pulse duration of 1 millisecond, train duration of 10 seconds and interstimulus interval of 7 minutes, 8 times a day, for 5 days. In the electrode control group or CE group (n = 33), animals were implanted with an electrode in the hippocampus, but were not stimulated. Group NC (n = 33) animals received no electrode or any stimulation. The emotional behavior of experimental rats was examined by activity in an unfamiliar open field and resistance to capture from the open field, while the spatial learning and memory ability was measured during training in a Morris water maze.

RESULTSThe stimulated rats tested 1 month after the last round of stimulation displayed substantial decreases in open field activity (scale: 10.4 +/- 2.3, P < 0.05) and increases in resistance to capture (scale: 2.85 +/- 0.56, P < 0.01). The amount of time for rats in group SE to find the platform (latency) as a measurement for spatial bias was prolonged (29 +/- 7) seconds after 15 trials in the water maze, P < 0.05). The experimental rats swam aimlessly in all four pool quadrants during the probe trial in the Morris water maze.

CONCLUSIONSFollowing repeated subconvulsive electrical stimuli to the hippocampus, rats displayed long-lasting significant abnormalities in emotional behavior, increased anxiety and defensiveness, enhanced ease to and delayed habituation to startlement, transitory spatial learning and memory disorder, which parallels many of the symptoms in posttraumatic stress disorder patients.

Animals ; Electric Stimulation ; adverse effects ; Emotions ; physiology ; Hippocampus ; physiology ; Learning ; physiology ; Male ; Memory ; physiology ; Rats ; Rats, Wistar ; Space Perception ; physiology

Methods and thoughts of the further research on central neurobiological mechanisms of Gan in taking charge of dispersion and regulating emotion are discussed. By applying the holistic approach and homeostasis theory, combined with modern psychological stress theory, the authors put forward their hypothesis of study. They offered that the TCM theory of "Gan takes charge of dispersion and could regulate emotion" is affirmatively to have certain mechanisms of central neurobiology. So, cut-in from the point of psychological stress reaction, adopting the research thoughts of "prescription-syndrome-therapeutic effectiveness--essence of Zang-Fu function", a model of chronic psychological stress reaction (CPSR) for imitating the process of comprehensive pathologic change due to Gan fails to take charge of dispersion and leads to emotional disorder was established. It is considered based on analysis of materials obtained from previous studies, that the central neurobiologic mechanism of so called dispersion, which Gan in charge of, is related to the regulation of hypothalamus-pitutary-adrenal gland axis. Concretely, the function of Gan in TCM may be, in the gross, related with the changes of multiple neurotransmitters and their synthetase produced in the process of CPSR (emotional disorder) regulation, such as neuropeptides, hormones, cyclic necleotide system and Fos protein expression, showing the characteristics of multiple links, multiple levels and multiple targets, with the effects involve several brain regions including various clusters of nuclei in hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala, etc.
Brain ; physiology ; Emotions ; Humans ; Liver ; physiology ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Stress, Psychological

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized by emotion dysregulation. Whether implicit emotion regulation can compensate for this deficit remains unknown. In this study, we recruited 159 subjects who were healthy controls, had subclinical depression, or had MDD, and examined them under baseline, implicit, and explicit reappraisal conditions. Explicit reappraisal led to the most negative feelings and the largest parietal late positive potential (parietal LPP, an index of emotion intensity) in the MDD group compared to the other two groups; the group difference was absent under the other two conditions. MDD patients showed larger regulatory effects in the LPP during implicit than explicit reappraisal, whereas healthy controls showed a reversed pattern. Furthermore, the frontal P3, an index of voluntary cognitive control, showed larger amplitudes in explicit reappraisal compared to baseline in the healthy and subclinical groups, but not in the MDD group, while implicit reappraisal did not increase P3 across groups. These findings suggest that implicit reappraisal is beneficial for clinical depression.
Humans ; Depressive Disorder, Major/psychology* ; Emotional Regulation ; Depression ; Emotions/physiology* ; Cognition/physiology*