Persistent and disabling pain is the hallmark of chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS). However, disease severity (as measured by objective indexes such as those that use radiography or serology) is only marginally related to patients' reports of pain severity, and pain-related presentation can differ widely among individuals with CP/CPPS. Increasing evidence in support of the biopsychosocial model of pain suggests that cognitive and emotional processes are crucial contributors to inter-individual differences in the perception and impact of pain. This review describes the growing body of literature relating depression and catastrophizing to the experience of pain and pain-related sequelae in CP/CPPS. Depression and catastrophizing are consistently associated with the reported severity of pain, sensitivity to pain, physical disability, poor treatment outcomes, and inflammatory disease activity and potentially with early mortality. A variety of pathways, from cognitive to behavioral to neurophysiological, seem to mediate these deleterious effects. Collectively, depression and catastrophizing are critically important variables in understanding the experience of pain in patients with CP/CPPS. Pain, depression, and catastrophizing might all be uniquely important therapeutic targets in the multimodal management of a range of such conditions.
Catastrophization ; Depression ; Humans ; Pelvic Pain ; Prostatitis

The purpose of this study was to investigate the specific cognitive emotion regulation strategies affecting the development and maintenance of post-traumatic stress symptoms by reviewing the related literature. A literature search was conducted using Google Scholar, PubMed, DBPia, and RISS for investigating the relationship between cognitive emotion regulation strategies and post-traumatic stress symptoms in people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or in those who had experienced severe trauma. Catastrophizing and rumination were associated with more post-traumatic stress symptoms and higher psychological distress. On the other hand, positive reappraisal, refocus on planning, and acceptance were associated with fewer post-traumatic stress symptoms and lower psychological distress. We propose that catastrophizing and rumination contribute to both the development and maintenance of post-traumatic stress symptoms. Therefore, in the prevention and treatment of PTSD symptoms, catastrophizing and rumination need to be targeted and positive reappraisal needs to be increased.
Catastrophization ; Hand ; Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional. PURPOSE: To translate and culturally adapt an Iranian version of the Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire (PSQ) in Iran. OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE: Instruments measuring patient reported outcomes should satisfy certain psychometric properties. METHODS: The PSQ was translated following cross-cultural adaptation guidelines. A total of 101 patients with lumbar disc herniation (LDH), and 39 healthy cases were included in the study. All participants completed the PSQ and the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS). The internal consistency, test-retest reliability, known group comparison, criterion validity and item-scale correlations were assessed. RESULTS: The mean age of participants was 51.7 years. Reliability, validity and correlation of PSQ and PCS showed satisfactory results. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were 0.81 for PSQ-total, 0.82 for PSQ-minor, and 0.82 for PSQ-moderate. The intraclass correlation coefficients value was 0.84 (0.616-0.932) indicating an excellent test-retest reliability. The instrument discriminated well between sub-groups of patients who differed in a standard predictive measure of LDH surgery (the Finneson-Cooper score). Total PSQ were also significantly correlated with the total scores of the PCS, lending support to its good convergent validity. Additionally, the correlation of each item with its hypothesized domain on the PSQ indicated acceptable results, suggesting that the items had a substantial relationship with their own domains. CONCLUSIONS: The adapted Iranian PSQ is a valid and reliable questionnaire for the assessment of pain in patients with LDH.
Catastrophization ; Humans ; Iran ; Outcome Assessment (Health Care)* ; Psychometrics ; Reproducibility of Results

STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional. PURPOSE: To translate and culturally adapt an Iranian version of the Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire (PSQ) in Iran. OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE: Instruments measuring patient reported outcomes should satisfy certain psychometric properties. METHODS: The PSQ was translated following cross-cultural adaptation guidelines. A total of 101 patients with lumbar disc herniation (LDH), and 39 healthy cases were included in the study. All participants completed the PSQ and the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS). The internal consistency, test-retest reliability, known group comparison, criterion validity and item-scale correlations were assessed. RESULTS: The mean age of participants was 51.7 years. Reliability, validity and correlation of PSQ and PCS showed satisfactory results. Cronbach's alpha coefficients were 0.81 for PSQ-total, 0.82 for PSQ-minor, and 0.82 for PSQ-moderate. The intraclass correlation coefficients value was 0.84 (0.616-0.932) indicating an excellent test-retest reliability. The instrument discriminated well between sub-groups of patients who differed in a standard predictive measure of LDH surgery (the Finneson-Cooper score). Total PSQ were also significantly correlated with the total scores of the PCS, lending support to its good convergent validity. Additionally, the correlation of each item with its hypothesized domain on the PSQ indicated acceptable results, suggesting that the items had a substantial relationship with their own domains. CONCLUSIONS: The adapted Iranian PSQ is a valid and reliable questionnaire for the assessment of pain in patients with LDH.
Catastrophization ; Humans ; Iran ; Outcome Assessment (Health Care)* ; Psychometrics ; Reproducibility of Results

BACKGROUND: To assess the multidisciplinary aspects of pain, various self-rating questionnaires have been developed, but there have not been sufficient relevant studies on this topic in South Korea. The aim of this study was to develop a new pain sensitivity-related questionnaire in the Korean language that would be simple and would well reflect Koreans' senses. METHODS: A new pain assessment questionnaire was developed through a pre-survey on "geop", which is the Korean word expressing fear, anxiety, or catastrophizing. We named the new assessment questionnaire the Geop-Pain Questionnaire (GPQ). The GPQ was composed of 15 items divided into three categories and rated on a 5-point scale. As a preliminary study, internal consistency and test-retest reliability analyses were conducted. Subsequently, 109 individuals completed the GPQ along with three pain-related questionnaires translated into Korean (Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire [PSQ], Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale [PASS], and Pain Catastrophizing Scale [PCS]), and the correlations were analyzed. RESULTS: All items in the GPQ showed appropriate internal consistency, and the test-retest reliability analysis showed no statistically significant differences. The correlations between the GPQ and the existing questionnaires revealed that the GPQ scores had mid-positive correlations with the PSQ scores and strong positive correlations with the PASS and PCS scores. CONCLUSIONS: This study attempted to develop a questionnaire assessing pain sensitivity multidimensionally using the Korean word geop for the first time. The self-rating GPQ showed high correlations with the existing questionnaires and demonstrated potential to be utilized as a pain prediction index in clinical practice.
Anxiety ; Catastrophization ; Korea ; Pain Measurement ; Reproducibility of Results ; Surveys and Questionnaires

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to investigate the association between neuroticism, pain catastrophizing, and experimentally induced pain threshold and pain tolerance in a healthy adult sample from two regions of the country of Croatia: the island of Korcula and city of Split. METHODS: A total of 1,322 participants were enrolled from the Island of Korcula (n = 824) and the city of Split (n = 498). Participants completed a self-reported personality measure Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) and pain catastrophizing questionnaire Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS), followed by a mechanical pain pressure threshold and tolerance test. We have explored the mediating role of catastrophizing in the relationship between neuroticism and pain intensity. RESULTS: The results showed that pain catastrophizing partially mediated the relationship between neuroticism and pain intensity, suggesting the importance of pain catastrophizing in increasing vulnerability to pain. The results also indicated gender-related differences, marked by the higher pain threshold and tolerance in men. CONCLUSIONS: This study adds to the understanding of the complex interplay between personality and pain, by providing a better understanding of such mechanisms in healthy adults.
Adult ; Catastrophization ; Croatia ; Humans ; Male ; Negotiating ; Pain Measurement ; Pain Threshold

BACKGROUND: The word "geop" is a unique Korean term commonly used to describe fright, fear and anxiety, and similar concepts. The purpose of this pilot study is to examine the correlation between the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) score of geop and three different questionnaires on pain perception. METHODS: Patients aged 20 to 70 years who visited our outpatient pain clinics were evaluated. They were requested to rate the NRS score (range: 0-100) if they felt geop. Next, they completed questionnaires on pain perception, in this case the Korean version of the Pain Sensitivity Questionnaire (PSQ), the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS), and the Pain Anxiety Symptoms Scale (PASS). The correlations among each variable were evaluated by statistical analyses. RESULTS: There was no statistically significant correlation between the NRS score of geop and the PSQ score (r = 0.075, P = 0.5605). The NRS score of geop showed a significant correlation with the PCS total score (r = 0.346, P = 0.0063). Among the sub-scales, Rumination (r = 0.338, P = 0.0077) and Magnification (r = 0.343, P = 0.0069) were correlated with the NRS score of geop. In addition, the NRS score of geop showed a significant correlation with the PASS total score (r = 0.475, P = 0.0001). The cognitive (r = 0.473, P = 0.0002) and fear factors (r = 0.349, P = 0.0063) also showed significant correlations with the NRS score of geop. CONCLUSIONS: This study marks the first attempt to introduce the concept of "geop." The NRS score of geop showed a moderate positive correlation with the total PCS and PASS score. However, further investigations are required before the "geop" concept can be used practically in clinical fields.
Anxiety ; Catastrophization ; Humans ; Outpatients ; Pain Clinics ; Pain Perception* ; Pilot Projects* ; Surveys and Questionnaires*

OBJECTIVE: To investigate gender differences in pain patterns and psychological variables among patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain. METHOD: Thirty-five male and thirty-eight female patients who visited our outpatient clinic due to chronic musculoskeletal pain were evaluated using a questionnaire survey. Chronic musculoskeletal pain was defined as pain lasting longer than 6 months. Patients were evaluated with visual analogue scale (VAS), pain site, pain duration and frequency. Beck depression inventory, state-trait anxiety index, somatization scale of symptom checklist-revised, symptom interpretation questionnaire, and pain catastrophizing scale were checked for psychological variables. Correlations among each variable were evaluated statistically. RESULTS: Female patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain recorded higher scores on number of pain site, pain catastrophizing scale, rumination, magnification and catastrophic attribution than male patients (p<0.05). In female patients, VAS was correlated significantly with depression, static anxiety, somatization, catastrophizing thought. rumination, magnification, helpless, and catastrophic attribution. Pain frequency was correlated significantly with somatization, catastrophizing thought, rumination, and helpless. Number of pain site was correlated with somatization, catastrophizing thought, magnification, and helpless. The correlation between pain patterns and psychological variables was also observed in male patients, but statistically less significant than female patients. CONCLUSION: We found gender difference associated with pain patterns and psychological variables in chronic musculoskeletal pain patients. Consideration of psychological factors may be important for management in female patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain.
Ambulatory Care Facilities ; Anxiety ; Catastrophization ; Depression ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Musculoskeletal Pain ; Surveys and Questionnaires

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relations among pain, emotional factors and cognitive-behavioral factors in chronic musculoskeletal pain patients. METHOD: This study was designed as a questionnaire survey. 73 patients who visited our outpatient clinics due to chronic musculoskeletal pain were evaluated. They checked visual analogue scale (VAS), pain site and frequency. Beck depression inventory (BDI) and state-trait anxiety index (STAI) were checked for evaluation of emotional factors. Somatization scale of symptom checklist-revised (SCL-R- 90) and pain catastrophizing scale (PCS) were checked for cognitive-behavioral factors. Correlations among each variable were evaluated by statistical analysis. RESULTS: VAS was correlated with pain frequency (r=0.538, p<0.01), somatization and catastrophizing thought. Rumination thought was correlated with VAS (r=0.443, p<0.01), pain frequency (r=0.446, p<0.01) and static anxiety (r= 0.449, p<0.01). Magnification thought was correlated with depression (r=0.403, p<0.01) and static anxiety (r=0.447, p<0.01). Helpless thought was correlated with VAS (r= 0.442, p<0.01), pain frequency (r=0.429, p<0.01), depression (r=0.510, p<0.01), static anxiety (r=0.640, p<0.01) and somatization (r=0.504, p<0.01). Duration was not correlated with VAS, depression, anxiety, somatization and catastrophizing thought in chronic musculoskeletal pain patients (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: Cognitive-behavioral factors such as catastrophizing thought are strongly correlated with both pain aspects and emotional factors. Consideration of cognitive- behavioral factors as well as emotional factors may be important for management of chronic musculoskeletal pain.
Ambulatory Care Facilities ; Anxiety ; Catastrophization ; Depression ; Humans ; Musculoskeletal Pain ; Surveys and Questionnaires

BACKGROUND: In dentistry, pain is a factor that negatively affects treatments and drug use. The aim of this study was to evaluate the correlations of the postoperative analgesic use with pain catastrophizing and anxiety in patients who underwent removal of an impacted mandibular third molar.METHODS: We recruited 92 patients who underwent the extraction of impacted mandibular third molar. In this study, the Pederson index was used to preoperatively determine the difficulty of surgical extraction. Patients were asked to note the number of analgesics used for 7 postoperative days. Patients were divided into two groups based on the Pain Catastrophizing Scale: low and high score groups. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-trait and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-state questionnaires were used to determine the anxiety levels of the patients. The obtained data were examined to evaluate the correlations of pain catastrophizing and anxiety with the postoperative analgesic use.RESULTS: In this study, 92 patients, including 60 women and 32 men, were recruited. The analgesic use was higher in women than in men but with no significant difference (P > 0.05). Pain Catastrophizing Scale scores were higher in women than in men but with no significant difference (P > 0.05). The analgesic use was higher in patients with high pain catastrophizing than in those with low pain catastrophizing but with no significant difference (P > 0.05). State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-trait scores were higher in women than in men but with no significant difference. However, state-Trait Anxiety Inventory-state scores were significantly higher in women than in men (P < 0.05).CONCLUSION: The postoperative analgesic use may be higher in patients who catastrophize pain than in others. Knowing the patient's catastrophic characteristics preoperatively would contribute to successful pain management and appropriate drug selection.
Analgesics ; Anxiety ; Catastrophization ; Dental Anxiety ; Dentistry ; Female ; Humans ; Male ; Molar, Third ; Pain Management ; Tooth, Impacted