Pharmacoeconomic researches have confirmed that hypoglycemic treatment strategies including a dipeptidyl peptidase-Ⅳ (DPP-4) inhibitor exhibit excellent cost-effectiveness when compared with others.Direct comparisons with active glucose-lowering comparators in drug-naive patients have demonstrated that DPP-4 inhibitors exert slightly less pronounced HbA1c reduction than metformin (with the advantage of better gastrointestinal tolerability) and similar glucose-lowering effects compared with a thiazolidinedione (TZD,with the advantage of no weight gain).In metformin-treated patients,gliptins were associated with similar HbA1C reductions compared with a sulphonylurea(SU,with the advantage of no weight gain,considerably fewer hypoglycaemic episodes and no need for titration) and a TZD (with the advantage of no weight gain and better overall tolerability).In addition,excellent efficacy could also reduce the incidence of diabetic complications and increase patient's work productivity and thus lower indirect cost.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4)inhibitors are two classes of incretin-based drugs for type 2 diabetes treatment.GLP-1 receptor agonists can directly activate the GLP-1 receptor while DPP-4 inhibitors act indirectly via preventing incretin enzymatic degradation.The comparison of two classes of drugs in clinical use becomes a hot research topic.A head to head comparison study has shown that,compared with DPP-4 inhibitor sitagliptin,GLP-1 analogue liraglutide shows better blood glucose control,weight loss,and β-cell function improvement,as well as higher patient treatment satisfaction and better cost-effectiveness of drug economics.Those advantages of liraglutide provide an ideal choice for the clinical treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is an ineretin hormone released from intestinal L-cells into circulation in response to dietary nutrient intake.Based on the recently finished studies,we reviewed the impact of GLP-1 on gastric emptying,satiety,and food intake.Meanwhile,the ehnical advantage and gastrointestinal adverse effects of long-acting GLP-1 analogue liraglutide were evaluated.

is factor-α, interferon-γ, and NO is very important in the courses of β-cell apoptosis. However, the main mechanisms leading to β-cell apoptosis in type 2 diabetes are inflammation stress, oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress.

Pituitary adenomas represent one of the most common type of central nervous system tumors. Since many signs and symptoms of pituitary adenomas overlap with those of other common diseases, missed diagnosis is more common. A long duration of active disease in patients with secreting pituitary adenomas is associated with an increased risk of complications and reduced quality of life. Therefore, correct, early diagnosis and treatment are crucial for these patients. Treatment options for pituitary adenomas include medical therapy, microscopic or endoscopic surgical resection, and radiation therapy. The recent progresses in diagnosis and treatment for pituitary adenomas have been discussed in present paper for improving our understanding of the disease.

Insulin resistance likely plays a central pathogenic role in polycystic ovary syndrome and may explain the pleiotropie presentation and involvement of multiple organ systems.Hyperinsulinaemia leads to increased production of androgens resulting in anovulatory infertility.Women,especially those obese women with polycystic ovary syndrome,have an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease in their later life.Treatment of insulin resistance through lifestyle therapy or with a diabetes drug has become mainstream therapy to reduce the risk of diabetes,endometrial abnormalities,and cardiovascular disease events in women with polycystic ovary syndrome.

Angiotensin-Ⅱ-induced apoptosis was widely involved in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, etc. The mechanism of angiotensin-Ⅱ-induced apoptosis is complicated, including the receptor (AT1R and AT2R) level regulation, Fas/FasL pathway, and the regulation by p53 family, Bcl-2 family, Caspase family, Ang-(1-7), etc. Mitochondria damage and oxidative damage play important roles in the apoptosis process. This article reviews the previous researches on angiotensin-Ⅱ-induced apoptosis.

ADVANCE trial demonstrated that stable intensive glucose control could improve prognosis and the target HbA1c should be 6.5%.While ACCORD and VADT trials suggested aggressive glucose lowering in diabetics at high cardiovascular risk is potentially harmful,tight glucose control yields no significant effect on long duration,poorly controlled patients with complications.DCCT and UKPDS research confirmed benefits of early intensive glucose control could persist due to legacy effect.Steno-2 research showed patients benefit greatly from comprehensive control of risk factors.In sum,early intensive control of risk factors and individualized treatment in diabetics are mainstream therapy.

Primary hyperaldosteronism(PHA) is one of the most common reasons of secondary hypertension,which usually has long history,moderate hypertension and relative high incident of vascular complications.Its other complications include hypokalemia,alkalosis,hypocalcemia and IGT et al.Screening hypertension patients using plasma aldosteronism/renin rate will greatly increase the diagnosis and improve the treatment.Treatments of PHA include surgery,medicine and intervene.

Three patients with prostatic carcinoma who experienced bilateral orchidectomy 2 to 12 weeks ago were examined, and each patient accepted intramuscular injection of estradiol benzoate (E2B) in dose of 1 mg daily for 7 days. Blood sampe was drawn in an interval of 10 min was done for LH pulse analysis before and after the injection for a period of 7h. The results showed that the mean serum LH level decreased significantly from 177,58?3.20 to 174.70?7.60, 138.30?5.83 to 132.02? 5.77 and 145.88? 3.82 to 142.80? 3.65U / L, respectively (P