Objective To study the spatial arrangement of mouse connecting tubules（CNT）and their transition to collecting duct system.Methods The renal tissues of three C57/BL/6J mice were fixed by perfusion and embedded in Epon 812.Totally 2 000 consecutive sections with the thickness of 2.5 μm were obtained from the renal surface to the papilla.The serial images under microscope were digitalized and aligned.Thirty eight CNT were traced with a series of computer programs.Results The CNT from long loop nephron ascended towards renal capsule and merged with 5 to 6 CNT from short loop nephrons to form the so-called arcade,while the latter or some of the CNT from the superficial cortex directly drained into the collecting duct in the superficial cortex.The lengths of CNT and the arcade ranged from 150 μm to 500 μm and 600 μm to 900 μm respectively.Conclusion The arcade or CNT drains into collecting duct only at superficial cortical level,which suggests that the reabsorption of the glomerular ultra-filtration in collecting ducts keeps unaffected when collecting duct runs through middle to deeper cortex.

The human oral microbiome harbors one of the most diverse microbial communities in the human body,playing critical roles in oral and systemic health.Recent technological innovations are propelling the characterization and manipulation of oral microbiota.High-throughput sequencing enables comprehensive taxonomic and functional profiling of oral microbiomes.New long-read platforms improve genome assembly from complex samples.Single-cell genomics provides insights into uncultured taxa.Advanced imaging modalities including fluorescence,mass spectrometry,and Raman spectroscopy have enabled the visualization of the spatial organization and interactions of oral microbes with increasing resolution.Fluorescence techniques link phylogenetic identity with localization.Mass spectrometry imaging reveals metabolic niches and activities while Raman spectroscopy generates rapid biomolecular fingerprints for classification.Culturomics facilitates the isolation and cultivation of novel fastidious oral taxa using high-throughput approaches.Ongoing integration of these technologies holds the promise of transforming our understanding of oral microbiome assembly,gene expression,metabolites,microenvironments,virulence mechanisms,and microbe-host interfaces in the context of health and disease.However,significant knowledge gaps persist regarding community origins,developmental trajectories,homeostasis versus dysbiosis triggers,functional biomarkers,and strategies to deliberately reshape the oral microbiome for therapeutic benefit.The convergence of sequencing,imaging,cultureomics,synthetic systems,and biomimetic models will provide unprecedented insights into the oral microbiome and offer opportunities to predict,prevent,diagnose,and treat associated oral diseases.

The human oral microbiome harbors one of the most diverse microbial communities in the human body,playing critical roles in oral and systemic health.Recent technological innovations are propelling the characterization and manipulation of oral microbiota.High-throughput sequencing enables comprehensive taxonomic and functional profiling of oral microbiomes.New long-read platforms improve genome assembly from complex samples.Single-cell genomics provides insights into uncultured taxa.Advanced imaging modalities including fluorescence,mass spectrometry,and Raman spectroscopy have enabled the visualization of the spatial organization and interactions of oral microbes with increasing resolution.Fluorescence techniques link phylogenetic identity with localization.Mass spectrometry imaging reveals metabolic niches and activities while Raman spectroscopy generates rapid biomolecular fingerprints for classification.Culturomics facilitates the isolation and cultivation of novel fastidious oral taxa using high-throughput approaches.Ongoing integration of these technologies holds the promise of transforming our understanding of oral microbiome assembly,gene expression,metabolites,microenvironments,virulence mechanisms,and microbe-host interfaces in the context of health and disease.However,significant knowledge gaps persist regarding community origins,developmental trajectories,homeostasis versus dysbiosis triggers,functional biomarkers,and strategies to deliberately reshape the oral microbiome for therapeutic benefit.The convergence of sequencing,imaging,cultureomics,synthetic systems,and biomimetic models will provide unprecedented insights into the oral microbiome and offer opportunities to predict,prevent,diagnose,and treat associated oral diseases.

The human oral microbiome harbors one of the most diverse microbial communities in the human body,playing critical roles in oral and systemic health.Recent technological innovations are propelling the characterization and manipulation of oral microbiota.High-throughput sequencing enables comprehensive taxonomic and functional profiling of oral microbiomes.New long-read platforms improve genome assembly from complex samples.Single-cell genomics provides insights into uncultured taxa.Advanced imaging modalities including fluorescence,mass spectrometry,and Raman spectroscopy have enabled the visualization of the spatial organization and interactions of oral microbes with increasing resolution.Fluorescence techniques link phylogenetic identity with localization.Mass spectrometry imaging reveals metabolic niches and activities while Raman spectroscopy generates rapid biomolecular fingerprints for classification.Culturomics facilitates the isolation and cultivation of novel fastidious oral taxa using high-throughput approaches.Ongoing integration of these technologies holds the promise of transforming our understanding of oral microbiome assembly,gene expression,metabolites,microenvironments,virulence mechanisms,and microbe-host interfaces in the context of health and disease.However,significant knowledge gaps persist regarding community origins,developmental trajectories,homeostasis versus dysbiosis triggers,functional biomarkers,and strategies to deliberately reshape the oral microbiome for therapeutic benefit.The convergence of sequencing,imaging,cultureomics,synthetic systems,and biomimetic models will provide unprecedented insights into the oral microbiome and offer opportunities to predict,prevent,diagnose,and treat associated oral diseases.

The human oral microbiome harbors one of the most diverse microbial communities in the human body,playing critical roles in oral and systemic health.Recent technological innovations are propelling the characterization and manipulation of oral microbiota.High-throughput sequencing enables comprehensive taxonomic and functional profiling of oral microbiomes.New long-read platforms improve genome assembly from complex samples.Single-cell genomics provides insights into uncultured taxa.Advanced imaging modalities including fluorescence,mass spectrometry,and Raman spectroscopy have enabled the visualization of the spatial organization and interactions of oral microbes with increasing resolution.Fluorescence techniques link phylogenetic identity with localization.Mass spectrometry imaging reveals metabolic niches and activities while Raman spectroscopy generates rapid biomolecular fingerprints for classification.Culturomics facilitates the isolation and cultivation of novel fastidious oral taxa using high-throughput approaches.Ongoing integration of these technologies holds the promise of transforming our understanding of oral microbiome assembly,gene expression,metabolites,microenvironments,virulence mechanisms,and microbe-host interfaces in the context of health and disease.However,significant knowledge gaps persist regarding community origins,developmental trajectories,homeostasis versus dysbiosis triggers,functional biomarkers,and strategies to deliberately reshape the oral microbiome for therapeutic benefit.The convergence of sequencing,imaging,cultureomics,synthetic systems,and biomimetic models will provide unprecedented insights into the oral microbiome and offer opportunities to predict,prevent,diagnose,and treat associated oral diseases.

The human oral microbiome harbors one of the most diverse microbial communities in the human body,playing critical roles in oral and systemic health.Recent technological innovations are propelling the characterization and manipulation of oral microbiota.High-throughput sequencing enables comprehensive taxonomic and functional profiling of oral microbiomes.New long-read platforms improve genome assembly from complex samples.Single-cell genomics provides insights into uncultured taxa.Advanced imaging modalities including fluorescence,mass spectrometry,and Raman spectroscopy have enabled the visualization of the spatial organization and interactions of oral microbes with increasing resolution.Fluorescence techniques link phylogenetic identity with localization.Mass spectrometry imaging reveals metabolic niches and activities while Raman spectroscopy generates rapid biomolecular fingerprints for classification.Culturomics facilitates the isolation and cultivation of novel fastidious oral taxa using high-throughput approaches.Ongoing integration of these technologies holds the promise of transforming our understanding of oral microbiome assembly,gene expression,metabolites,microenvironments,virulence mechanisms,and microbe-host interfaces in the context of health and disease.However,significant knowledge gaps persist regarding community origins,developmental trajectories,homeostasis versus dysbiosis triggers,functional biomarkers,and strategies to deliberately reshape the oral microbiome for therapeutic benefit.The convergence of sequencing,imaging,cultureomics,synthetic systems,and biomimetic models will provide unprecedented insights into the oral microbiome and offer opportunities to predict,prevent,diagnose,and treat associated oral diseases.

The human oral microbiome harbors one of the most diverse microbial communities in the human body,playing critical roles in oral and systemic health.Recent technological innovations are propelling the characterization and manipulation of oral microbiota.High-throughput sequencing enables comprehensive taxonomic and functional profiling of oral microbiomes.New long-read platforms improve genome assembly from complex samples.Single-cell genomics provides insights into uncultured taxa.Advanced imaging modalities including fluorescence,mass spectrometry,and Raman spectroscopy have enabled the visualization of the spatial organization and interactions of oral microbes with increasing resolution.Fluorescence techniques link phylogenetic identity with localization.Mass spectrometry imaging reveals metabolic niches and activities while Raman spectroscopy generates rapid biomolecular fingerprints for classification.Culturomics facilitates the isolation and cultivation of novel fastidious oral taxa using high-throughput approaches.Ongoing integration of these technologies holds the promise of transforming our understanding of oral microbiome assembly,gene expression,metabolites,microenvironments,virulence mechanisms,and microbe-host interfaces in the context of health and disease.However,significant knowledge gaps persist regarding community origins,developmental trajectories,homeostasis versus dysbiosis triggers,functional biomarkers,and strategies to deliberately reshape the oral microbiome for therapeutic benefit.The convergence of sequencing,imaging,cultureomics,synthetic systems,and biomimetic models will provide unprecedented insights into the oral microbiome and offer opportunities to predict,prevent,diagnose,and treat associated oral diseases.

The human oral microbiome harbors one of the most diverse microbial communities in the human body,playing critical roles in oral and systemic health.Recent technological innovations are propelling the characterization and manipulation of oral microbiota.High-throughput sequencing enables comprehensive taxonomic and functional profiling of oral microbiomes.New long-read platforms improve genome assembly from complex samples.Single-cell genomics provides insights into uncultured taxa.Advanced imaging modalities including fluorescence,mass spectrometry,and Raman spectroscopy have enabled the visualization of the spatial organization and interactions of oral microbes with increasing resolution.Fluorescence techniques link phylogenetic identity with localization.Mass spectrometry imaging reveals metabolic niches and activities while Raman spectroscopy generates rapid biomolecular fingerprints for classification.Culturomics facilitates the isolation and cultivation of novel fastidious oral taxa using high-throughput approaches.Ongoing integration of these technologies holds the promise of transforming our understanding of oral microbiome assembly,gene expression,metabolites,microenvironments,virulence mechanisms,and microbe-host interfaces in the context of health and disease.However,significant knowledge gaps persist regarding community origins,developmental trajectories,homeostasis versus dysbiosis triggers,functional biomarkers,and strategies to deliberately reshape the oral microbiome for therapeutic benefit.The convergence of sequencing,imaging,cultureomics,synthetic systems,and biomimetic models will provide unprecedented insights into the oral microbiome and offer opportunities to predict,prevent,diagnose,and treat associated oral diseases.

The human oral microbiome harbors one of the most diverse microbial communities in the human body,playing critical roles in oral and systemic health.Recent technological innovations are propelling the characterization and manipulation of oral microbiota.High-throughput sequencing enables comprehensive taxonomic and functional profiling of oral microbiomes.New long-read platforms improve genome assembly from complex samples.Single-cell genomics provides insights into uncultured taxa.Advanced imaging modalities including fluorescence,mass spectrometry,and Raman spectroscopy have enabled the visualization of the spatial organization and interactions of oral microbes with increasing resolution.Fluorescence techniques link phylogenetic identity with localization.Mass spectrometry imaging reveals metabolic niches and activities while Raman spectroscopy generates rapid biomolecular fingerprints for classification.Culturomics facilitates the isolation and cultivation of novel fastidious oral taxa using high-throughput approaches.Ongoing integration of these technologies holds the promise of transforming our understanding of oral microbiome assembly,gene expression,metabolites,microenvironments,virulence mechanisms,and microbe-host interfaces in the context of health and disease.However,significant knowledge gaps persist regarding community origins,developmental trajectories,homeostasis versus dysbiosis triggers,functional biomarkers,and strategies to deliberately reshape the oral microbiome for therapeutic benefit.The convergence of sequencing,imaging,cultureomics,synthetic systems,and biomimetic models will provide unprecedented insights into the oral microbiome and offer opportunities to predict,prevent,diagnose,and treat associated oral diseases.

Objective To investigate the effect and mechanisms of β hydroxybutyrate (βOHB) regulation on p75NTR expression in Alzheimer's disease (AD) model cells.Methods First,cultured SH-SY5Y cells were exposed to Aβ (final concentrations:10,20,40,80 μmol/L) with or without 5 mmol/L βOHB pretreatment,and sham-treated cells were used as the control.At 24 h after treatment,the viability of cells was determined by the MTT assay.Secondly,cultured cells were divided into four groups.Cells in the Aβ group were exposed to Aβ (final concentration:20 μ mol/L)with or without 5 mmol/L βOHB pretreatment.Cells in the βOHB group were treated only with 5 mmol/L βOHB,and sham treated cells were used as the control.At 6 h and 24 h after treatment,the expression of p75NTR,HDAC1/2 mRNA and its protein expression,and p65 protein expression were measured by qRT-PCR or Western blot.Finally,the expression of p75NTR mRNA and protein was analyzed in cultured cells after silencing HDAC1 / 2 with siRNA.Results The viability of cells with 40 μmol/L or 80 μmol/L treatment was lower than that in the control group (P＜0.01),and there was a significant increase (P＜0.01) in cell viability of the βOHB intervention group,compared with the Aβ group.At 6 h or 24 h after treatment,the expression of p75NTR mRNA,its protein expression,and p65 protein expression were clearly increased in the βOHB group (P＜0.05) and markedly decreased (P＜0.01) in the Aβ group,compared with the control.Additionally,the expression of HDAC1 / 2 mRNA and protein was higher (P＜0.01) in the Aβ group at 6h or 24h after treatment and lower(P＜0.05 or P＜0.01)in the βOHB group at 6 h after treatment than in the control group.Compared with the Aβ group,there were significant increases (P＜0.01) observed in p75NTR mRNA,its protein expression,and p65 protein expression,and a notable decrease (P＜0.05) in HDAC1 / 2 mRNA and protein expression in cells of the βOHB intervention group at 6 h and 24 h after treatment.The expression of p75NTR mRNA and protein increased in HDAC1 knock-down cells compared with the control (P＜0.05).However,no difference was found in p75NTR expression in HDAC2 knock-down cells (P＞0.05).Conclusions βOHB up-regulates p75NTR expression by inhibiting HDAC1 of βOHB.It also activates p65 and prevents the decrease of cell viability.