Objective:To investigate the staging criteria of renal tuberculosis，and to analyze the diagnostic and therapeutic characteristics as well as prognostic outcomes at different stages.Methods:A retrospective analysis was conducted on the clinical data of 134 patients with renal tuberculosis who were admitted to the Second Hospital of Lanzhou University between January 2019 and December 2023.The study cohort included 62 males and 72 females，with a mean age of（46.63 ± 13.52）years and a mean body mass index（BMI）of（22.85 ± 3.73）kg/m 2. A total of 107 patients resided in rural areas. Sixty patients had a history of pulmonary tuberculosis. Tuberculous lesions were located in the left kidney in 72 cases and in the right kidney in 62 cases. The main presenting complaints included irritative lower urinary tract symptoms in 85 patients and systemic symptoms in 92 patients. Ureteral involvement was observed in 97 patients，bladder involvement in 32 patients，and genital involvement in 9 patients. Based on computed tomography（CT）findings，the number，extent，and degree of renal destruction caused by tuberculous lesions were comprehensively evaluated in axial，coronal，and sagittal planes. The primary staging criteria included lesion diameter（2 cm）and the proportion of renal volume involved by the lesion（one-third，one-half，and two-thirds）. Renal tuberculosis was classified into three stages and six subtypes：Stage Ⅰa，a solitary lesion with a diameter ≤ 2 cm；Stage Ⅰb，a solitary lesion >2 cm or multiple lesions confined within one-third of the renal volume；Stage Ⅱa，lesions involving more than one-third but confined within one-half of the renal volume；Stage Ⅱb，lesions involving more than one-half but confined within two-thirds of the renal volume；Stage Ⅲa，lesions involving more than two-thirds of the renal volume with a glomerular filtration rate（GFR）of the affected kidney <10 ml/min；and Stage Ⅲb，complete renal calcification，presenting as an “autonephrectomy”. Among the 134 patients included in this study，7 were classified as Stage Ⅰa，17 as Stage Ⅰb，20 as Stage Ⅱa，19 as Stage Ⅱb，62 as Stage Ⅲa，and 9 as Stage Ⅲb. The severity of hydronephrosis was graded as follows：mild，renal pelvic separation <2 cm；moderate，2-3 cm；and severe，>3 cm. Prior to treatment，the mean renal pelvic separation was（1.76 ± 0.92）cm in Stage Ⅰa，（1.69 ± 0.81）cm in Stage Ⅰb，and（1.10 ± 0.82）cm in Stage Ⅱa，corresponding to mild to moderate hydronephrosis. All 7 patients in Stage Ⅰa underwent ureteroscopic examination and double-J stent placement，combined with a 6-month short-course anti-tuberculosis regimen consisting of isoniazid，rifampicin，pyrazinamide，and ethambutol for 2 months（intensive phase），followed by isoniazid and rifampicin for 4 months（continuation phase）. Among the 17 patients in Stage Ⅰb，13 presented with hydronephrosis and underwent ureteroscopic examination and double-J stent placement in combination with 6 months of anti-tuberculosis therapy，while 4 patients with isolated renal tuberculosis received anti-tuberculosis therapy alone for 6 months.Of the 20 patients in Stage Ⅱa，4 with hydronephrosis underwent ureteroscopic examination and double-J stent placement plus 6 months of anti-tuberculosis therapy，whereas 16 underwent nephroureterectomy. All 19 patients in Stage Ⅱb underwent nephroureterectomy. Among the 62 patients in Stage Ⅲa，60 underwent nephroureterectomy，while 2 refused surgery and were treated with the 6-month short-course anti-tuberculosis regimen. Of the 9 patients in Stage Ⅲb，8 underwent nephroureterectomy；in 1 patient，surgery was not performed due to severe adhesions in the operative field，and the patient received the 6-month short-course anti-tuberculosis regimen instead. Follow-up assessments included clinical symptoms，erythrocyte sedimentation rate（ESR），serum creatinine，degree of renal pelvic separation，and imaging findings from urinary tract CT. Efficacy was evaluated according to the following criteria：Cure was defined as clinical stability with all of the following conditions：① improvement of systemic symptoms，including absence of flank pain，fever，and lower urinary tract irritative symptoms，with normalization of erythrocyte sedimentation rate（ESR）；② negative urine culture for Mycobacterium tuberculosis；and ③ complete calcification of renal lesions and/or no evidence of tuberculous lesions at other sites. Stable disease was defined as no change in the size or extent of renal tuberculosis lesions. Progressive disease was defined as enlargement or increase in the number of tuberculous lesions or involvement of additional sites. Results:Among the 7 patients in Stage Ⅰa，follow-up imaging after treatment showed a mean renal pelvic separation of（0.44 ± 0.56）cm，which was significantly reduced compared with baseline（ t = 3.909， P = 0.008）. Five patients achieved cure，1 remained stable，and 1 showed disease progression and subsequently underwent nephroureterectomy，resulting in postoperative cure. In Stage Ⅰb，among 13 patients with hydronephrosis，post-treatment imaging showed a mean renal pelvic separation of（0.8 ± 0.75）cm，a statistically significant improvement from baseline（ t = 5.633， P < 0.01）. Six patients were cured，4 remained stable，and 3 experienced disease progression and underwent nephroureterectomy. Of the 4 patients with isolated renal tuberculosis，2 were controlled，and 2 progressed and underwent nephroureterectomy. In Stage Ⅱa，among 4 patients with tuberculous hydronephrosis，post-treatment renal pelvic separation was（1.20±0.98）cm，with no significant difference from baseline（ t = -1.675， P = 0.193）；these patients underwent nephroureterectomy 1-2 years later. The remaining 16 patients without hydronephrosis underwent nephroureterectomy and were cured. All 19 patients in Stage Ⅱb underwent nephroureterectomy；17 were cured，and 2 developed ipsilateral perirenal fluid collections 3 months postoperatively，which resolved spontaneously with the standard 6-month anti-tuberculosis regimen. Among 62 patients in Stage Ⅲa，60 underwent nephroureterectomy. Of these，54 were cured；1 developed a urinary tract infection within 2 weeks postoperatively；3 showed contralateral renal disease progression at 3 months；and 1 developed ipsilateral perirenal fluid at 3 months，which resolved spontaneously with standard anti-tuberculosis therapy. One patient developed solitary kidney failure 7 months postoperatively and underwent ureteral stent placement，with disease remaining stable thereafter. Two patients refused surgery and received only anti-tuberculosis therapy；during follow-up，1 patient experienced disease progression and died of disseminated tuberculosis after 1 year，while the other developed contralateral renal involvement at 3 months and received standard 6-month therapy，with disease remaining stable. Among 9 patients in Stage Ⅲb，8 underwent nephroureterectomy and were cured. One patient，with severe adhesions precluding surgery，received anti-tuberculosis therapy alone，and disease remained stable over a 2-year follow-up. Conclusions:The CT-based staging system for renal tuberculosis proposed in this study（three stages and six subtypes）effectively reflects the severity of renal lesions and clearly delineates the clinical characteristics and prognostic outcomes at each stage. Stage Ⅰ patients treated with anti-tuberculosis drugs combined with double-J stent placement demonstrated favorable outcomes and high renal preservation rates. In contrast，Stages Ⅱ and Ⅲ patients showed poor responses to anti-tuberculosis therapy combined with drainage，with a higher risk of disease progression and relatively worse prognosis，highlighting the recommendation for early nephroureterectomy of the affected kidney.

Objective:To investigate the staging criteria of renal tuberculosis，and to analyze the diagnostic and therapeutic characteristics as well as prognostic outcomes at different stages.Methods:A retrospective analysis was conducted on the clinical data of 134 patients with renal tuberculosis who were admitted to the Second Hospital of Lanzhou University between January 2019 and December 2023.The study cohort included 62 males and 72 females，with a mean age of（46.63 ± 13.52）years and a mean body mass index（BMI）of（22.85 ± 3.73）kg/m 2. A total of 107 patients resided in rural areas. Sixty patients had a history of pulmonary tuberculosis. Tuberculous lesions were located in the left kidney in 72 cases and in the right kidney in 62 cases. The main presenting complaints included irritative lower urinary tract symptoms in 85 patients and systemic symptoms in 92 patients. Ureteral involvement was observed in 97 patients，bladder involvement in 32 patients，and genital involvement in 9 patients. Based on computed tomography（CT）findings，the number，extent，and degree of renal destruction caused by tuberculous lesions were comprehensively evaluated in axial，coronal，and sagittal planes. The primary staging criteria included lesion diameter（2 cm）and the proportion of renal volume involved by the lesion（one-third，one-half，and two-thirds）. Renal tuberculosis was classified into three stages and six subtypes：Stage Ⅰa，a solitary lesion with a diameter ≤ 2 cm；Stage Ⅰb，a solitary lesion >2 cm or multiple lesions confined within one-third of the renal volume；Stage Ⅱa，lesions involving more than one-third but confined within one-half of the renal volume；Stage Ⅱb，lesions involving more than one-half but confined within two-thirds of the renal volume；Stage Ⅲa，lesions involving more than two-thirds of the renal volume with a glomerular filtration rate（GFR）of the affected kidney <10 ml/min；and Stage Ⅲb，complete renal calcification，presenting as an “autonephrectomy”. Among the 134 patients included in this study，7 were classified as Stage Ⅰa，17 as Stage Ⅰb，20 as Stage Ⅱa，19 as Stage Ⅱb，62 as Stage Ⅲa，and 9 as Stage Ⅲb. The severity of hydronephrosis was graded as follows：mild，renal pelvic separation <2 cm；moderate，2-3 cm；and severe，>3 cm. Prior to treatment，the mean renal pelvic separation was（1.76 ± 0.92）cm in Stage Ⅰa，（1.69 ± 0.81）cm in Stage Ⅰb，and（1.10 ± 0.82）cm in Stage Ⅱa，corresponding to mild to moderate hydronephrosis. All 7 patients in Stage Ⅰa underwent ureteroscopic examination and double-J stent placement，combined with a 6-month short-course anti-tuberculosis regimen consisting of isoniazid，rifampicin，pyrazinamide，and ethambutol for 2 months（intensive phase），followed by isoniazid and rifampicin for 4 months（continuation phase）. Among the 17 patients in Stage Ⅰb，13 presented with hydronephrosis and underwent ureteroscopic examination and double-J stent placement in combination with 6 months of anti-tuberculosis therapy，while 4 patients with isolated renal tuberculosis received anti-tuberculosis therapy alone for 6 months.Of the 20 patients in Stage Ⅱa，4 with hydronephrosis underwent ureteroscopic examination and double-J stent placement plus 6 months of anti-tuberculosis therapy，whereas 16 underwent nephroureterectomy. All 19 patients in Stage Ⅱb underwent nephroureterectomy. Among the 62 patients in Stage Ⅲa，60 underwent nephroureterectomy，while 2 refused surgery and were treated with the 6-month short-course anti-tuberculosis regimen. Of the 9 patients in Stage Ⅲb，8 underwent nephroureterectomy；in 1 patient，surgery was not performed due to severe adhesions in the operative field，and the patient received the 6-month short-course anti-tuberculosis regimen instead. Follow-up assessments included clinical symptoms，erythrocyte sedimentation rate（ESR），serum creatinine，degree of renal pelvic separation，and imaging findings from urinary tract CT. Efficacy was evaluated according to the following criteria：Cure was defined as clinical stability with all of the following conditions：① improvement of systemic symptoms，including absence of flank pain，fever，and lower urinary tract irritative symptoms，with normalization of erythrocyte sedimentation rate（ESR）；② negative urine culture for Mycobacterium tuberculosis；and ③ complete calcification of renal lesions and/or no evidence of tuberculous lesions at other sites. Stable disease was defined as no change in the size or extent of renal tuberculosis lesions. Progressive disease was defined as enlargement or increase in the number of tuberculous lesions or involvement of additional sites. Results:Among the 7 patients in Stage Ⅰa，follow-up imaging after treatment showed a mean renal pelvic separation of（0.44 ± 0.56）cm，which was significantly reduced compared with baseline（ t = 3.909， P = 0.008）. Five patients achieved cure，1 remained stable，and 1 showed disease progression and subsequently underwent nephroureterectomy，resulting in postoperative cure. In Stage Ⅰb，among 13 patients with hydronephrosis，post-treatment imaging showed a mean renal pelvic separation of（0.8 ± 0.75）cm，a statistically significant improvement from baseline（ t = 5.633， P < 0.01）. Six patients were cured，4 remained stable，and 3 experienced disease progression and underwent nephroureterectomy. Of the 4 patients with isolated renal tuberculosis，2 were controlled，and 2 progressed and underwent nephroureterectomy. In Stage Ⅱa，among 4 patients with tuberculous hydronephrosis，post-treatment renal pelvic separation was（1.20±0.98）cm，with no significant difference from baseline（ t = -1.675， P = 0.193）；these patients underwent nephroureterectomy 1-2 years later. The remaining 16 patients without hydronephrosis underwent nephroureterectomy and were cured. All 19 patients in Stage Ⅱb underwent nephroureterectomy；17 were cured，and 2 developed ipsilateral perirenal fluid collections 3 months postoperatively，which resolved spontaneously with the standard 6-month anti-tuberculosis regimen. Among 62 patients in Stage Ⅲa，60 underwent nephroureterectomy. Of these，54 were cured；1 developed a urinary tract infection within 2 weeks postoperatively；3 showed contralateral renal disease progression at 3 months；and 1 developed ipsilateral perirenal fluid at 3 months，which resolved spontaneously with standard anti-tuberculosis therapy. One patient developed solitary kidney failure 7 months postoperatively and underwent ureteral stent placement，with disease remaining stable thereafter. Two patients refused surgery and received only anti-tuberculosis therapy；during follow-up，1 patient experienced disease progression and died of disseminated tuberculosis after 1 year，while the other developed contralateral renal involvement at 3 months and received standard 6-month therapy，with disease remaining stable. Among 9 patients in Stage Ⅲb，8 underwent nephroureterectomy and were cured. One patient，with severe adhesions precluding surgery，received anti-tuberculosis therapy alone，and disease remained stable over a 2-year follow-up. Conclusions:The CT-based staging system for renal tuberculosis proposed in this study（three stages and six subtypes）effectively reflects the severity of renal lesions and clearly delineates the clinical characteristics and prognostic outcomes at each stage. Stage Ⅰ patients treated with anti-tuberculosis drugs combined with double-J stent placement demonstrated favorable outcomes and high renal preservation rates. In contrast，Stages Ⅱ and Ⅲ patients showed poor responses to anti-tuberculosis therapy combined with drainage，with a higher risk of disease progression and relatively worse prognosis，highlighting the recommendation for early nephroureterectomy of the affected kidney.

A decline in mucosal vascularity is a histological hallmark of oral submucous fibrosis(OSF),a premalignant disease that is largely induced by betel quid chewing.However,the lack of available models has challenged studies of angiogenesis in OSF.Here,we found that the expression of thrombospondin 1(THBS1),an endogenous angiostatic protein,was elevated in the stroma of tissues with OSF.Using a fibroblast-attached organoid(FAO)model,the overexpression of THBS1 in OSF was stably recapitulated in vitro.In the FAO model,treatment with arecoline,a major pathogenic component in areca nuts,enhanced the secretion of transforming growth factor(TGF)-β1 by epithelial cells,which then promoted the expression of THBS1 in fibroblasts.Furthermore,human umbilical vein endothelial cells(HUVECs)were incorporated into the FAO to mimic the vascularized component.Overexpression of THBS1 in fibroblasts drastically suppressed the sprouting ability of endothelial cells in vascularized FAOs(vFAOs).Consistently,treatment with arecoline reduced the expression of CD31 in vFAOs,and this effect was attenuated when the endothelial cells were preincubated with neutralizing antibody of CD36,a receptor of THBS1.Finally,in an arecoline-induced rat OSF model,THBS1 inhibition alleviated collagen deposition and the decline in vascularity in vivo.Overall,we exploited an assembled organoid model to study OSF pathogenesis and provide a rationale for targeting THBS1.

Objective: This meta-analysis aims to refine the understanding of the optimal choice between different cage shapes in transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) by systematically comparing perioperative data, radiological outcomes, clinical results, and complications associated with banana-shaped and straight bullet cages. Methods: A meticulous literature search encompassing PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, China Knowledge Network, and Wanfang Data was executed up to October 5, 2023. Inclusion criteria focused on studies comparing banana-shaped and straight bullet cages in TLIF. The quality of included studies was assessed using appropriate tools such as the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for nonrandomized studies. Rigorous evaluations were performed for radiographic outcomes, including disc height (DH), segmental lordosis (SL), lumbar lordosis (LL), subsidence, and fusion rates. Clinical outcomes were meticulously evaluated using visual analogue scale (VAS), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), and complications. Results: The analysis incorporated 7 studies, involving 573 patients (297 with banana-shaped cages, 276 with straight cages), all with NOS ratings exceeding 5 stars. No statistically significant differences were observed in operative time, blood loss, or hospitalization between the 2 cage shapes. Banana-shaped cages exhibited greater changes in DH (p = 0.001), SL (p = 0.02), and LL (p = 0.01). Despite statistically higher changes in ODI for straight cages (26.33, p < 0.0001), the actual value remained similar to banana-shaped cages (26.15). Both cage types demonstrated similar efficacy in VAS, complication rates, subsidence, and fusion rates. Conclusion Although banana-shaped cages can excel in restoring DH, SL, and LL, straight bullet cages can provide comparable functional improvements, pain relief, and complication rates.

Objective: This meta-analysis aims to refine the understanding of the optimal choice between different cage shapes in transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) by systematically comparing perioperative data, radiological outcomes, clinical results, and complications associated with banana-shaped and straight bullet cages. Methods: A meticulous literature search encompassing PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, China Knowledge Network, and Wanfang Data was executed up to October 5, 2023. Inclusion criteria focused on studies comparing banana-shaped and straight bullet cages in TLIF. The quality of included studies was assessed using appropriate tools such as the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for nonrandomized studies. Rigorous evaluations were performed for radiographic outcomes, including disc height (DH), segmental lordosis (SL), lumbar lordosis (LL), subsidence, and fusion rates. Clinical outcomes were meticulously evaluated using visual analogue scale (VAS), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), and complications. Results: The analysis incorporated 7 studies, involving 573 patients (297 with banana-shaped cages, 276 with straight cages), all with NOS ratings exceeding 5 stars. No statistically significant differences were observed in operative time, blood loss, or hospitalization between the 2 cage shapes. Banana-shaped cages exhibited greater changes in DH (p = 0.001), SL (p = 0.02), and LL (p = 0.01). Despite statistically higher changes in ODI for straight cages (26.33, p < 0.0001), the actual value remained similar to banana-shaped cages (26.15). Both cage types demonstrated similar efficacy in VAS, complication rates, subsidence, and fusion rates. Conclusion Although banana-shaped cages can excel in restoring DH, SL, and LL, straight bullet cages can provide comparable functional improvements, pain relief, and complication rates.

Objective: This meta-analysis aims to refine the understanding of the optimal choice between different cage shapes in transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) by systematically comparing perioperative data, radiological outcomes, clinical results, and complications associated with banana-shaped and straight bullet cages. Methods: A meticulous literature search encompassing PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, China Knowledge Network, and Wanfang Data was executed up to October 5, 2023. Inclusion criteria focused on studies comparing banana-shaped and straight bullet cages in TLIF. The quality of included studies was assessed using appropriate tools such as the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for nonrandomized studies. Rigorous evaluations were performed for radiographic outcomes, including disc height (DH), segmental lordosis (SL), lumbar lordosis (LL), subsidence, and fusion rates. Clinical outcomes were meticulously evaluated using visual analogue scale (VAS), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), and complications. Results: The analysis incorporated 7 studies, involving 573 patients (297 with banana-shaped cages, 276 with straight cages), all with NOS ratings exceeding 5 stars. No statistically significant differences were observed in operative time, blood loss, or hospitalization between the 2 cage shapes. Banana-shaped cages exhibited greater changes in DH (p = 0.001), SL (p = 0.02), and LL (p = 0.01). Despite statistically higher changes in ODI for straight cages (26.33, p < 0.0001), the actual value remained similar to banana-shaped cages (26.15). Both cage types demonstrated similar efficacy in VAS, complication rates, subsidence, and fusion rates. Conclusion Although banana-shaped cages can excel in restoring DH, SL, and LL, straight bullet cages can provide comparable functional improvements, pain relief, and complication rates.

Objective: This meta-analysis aims to refine the understanding of the optimal choice between different cage shapes in transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) by systematically comparing perioperative data, radiological outcomes, clinical results, and complications associated with banana-shaped and straight bullet cages. Methods: A meticulous literature search encompassing PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, China Knowledge Network, and Wanfang Data was executed up to October 5, 2023. Inclusion criteria focused on studies comparing banana-shaped and straight bullet cages in TLIF. The quality of included studies was assessed using appropriate tools such as the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for nonrandomized studies. Rigorous evaluations were performed for radiographic outcomes, including disc height (DH), segmental lordosis (SL), lumbar lordosis (LL), subsidence, and fusion rates. Clinical outcomes were meticulously evaluated using visual analogue scale (VAS), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), and complications. Results: The analysis incorporated 7 studies, involving 573 patients (297 with banana-shaped cages, 276 with straight cages), all with NOS ratings exceeding 5 stars. No statistically significant differences were observed in operative time, blood loss, or hospitalization between the 2 cage shapes. Banana-shaped cages exhibited greater changes in DH (p = 0.001), SL (p = 0.02), and LL (p = 0.01). Despite statistically higher changes in ODI for straight cages (26.33, p < 0.0001), the actual value remained similar to banana-shaped cages (26.15). Both cage types demonstrated similar efficacy in VAS, complication rates, subsidence, and fusion rates. Conclusion Although banana-shaped cages can excel in restoring DH, SL, and LL, straight bullet cages can provide comparable functional improvements, pain relief, and complication rates.

Objective: This meta-analysis aims to refine the understanding of the optimal choice between different cage shapes in transforaminal lumbar interbody fusion (TLIF) by systematically comparing perioperative data, radiological outcomes, clinical results, and complications associated with banana-shaped and straight bullet cages. Methods: A meticulous literature search encompassing PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, China Knowledge Network, and Wanfang Data was executed up to October 5, 2023. Inclusion criteria focused on studies comparing banana-shaped and straight bullet cages in TLIF. The quality of included studies was assessed using appropriate tools such as the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for nonrandomized studies. Rigorous evaluations were performed for radiographic outcomes, including disc height (DH), segmental lordosis (SL), lumbar lordosis (LL), subsidence, and fusion rates. Clinical outcomes were meticulously evaluated using visual analogue scale (VAS), Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), and complications. Results: The analysis incorporated 7 studies, involving 573 patients (297 with banana-shaped cages, 276 with straight cages), all with NOS ratings exceeding 5 stars. No statistically significant differences were observed in operative time, blood loss, or hospitalization between the 2 cage shapes. Banana-shaped cages exhibited greater changes in DH (p = 0.001), SL (p = 0.02), and LL (p = 0.01). Despite statistically higher changes in ODI for straight cages (26.33, p < 0.0001), the actual value remained similar to banana-shaped cages (26.15). Both cage types demonstrated similar efficacy in VAS, complication rates, subsidence, and fusion rates. Conclusion Although banana-shaped cages can excel in restoring DH, SL, and LL, straight bullet cages can provide comparable functional improvements, pain relief, and complication rates.

The oral and maxillofacial region comprises a variety of organs made up of multiple soft and hard tissue, which are anatomically vulnerable to the pathogenic factors of trauma, inflammation, and cancer. The studies of this intricate entity have been long-termly challenged by a lack of versatile preclinical models. Recently, the advancements in the organoid industry have provided novel strategies to break through this dilemma. Here, we summarize the existing biological and engineering approaches that were employed to generate oral and maxillofacial organoids. Then, we detail the use of modified co-culture methods, such as cell cluster co-inoculation and air-liquid interface culture technology to reconstitute the vascular network and immune microenvironment in assembled organoids. We further retrospect the existing oral and maxillofacial assembled organoids and their potential to recapitulate the homeostasis in parental tissues such as tooth, salivary gland, and mucosa. Finally, we discuss how the next-generation organoids may benefit to regenerative and precision medicine for treatment of oral-maxillofacial illness.
Organoids ; Humans ; Tissue Engineering/methods* ; Coculture Techniques ; Regenerative Medicine ; Mouth