Pilomatricomas can be confidently diagnosed cytologically due to their characteristic cytomorphological features. However, these lesions are rarely encountered by cytopathologists and thus pose a diagnostic dilemma to even experienced individuals, especially when the lesions are focally sampled. We describe two cases of histologically confirmed pilomatricoma. The first case is of a 13-year-old boy with posterior cervical ‘lymphadenopathy’, and the second one is of a 12-year-old girl with a lower cheek swelling. Both aspirates comprised predominantly atypical basal-like cells, with prominent nucleoli. ‘Ghost cells’ were readily identified by cell block in case two, but cell block in case one yielded no diagnostic material. In case two, pilomatricoma was accurately diagnosed pre-operatively. A cytological suspicion of a neoplastic process was raised in case one. Despite being diagnostically challenging, pilomatricoma can be diagnosed with careful observation of two unique cytological features of the lesions: (1) pathognomonic ‘ghost cells’ and (2) irregular, saw-toothed, loosely cohesive basaloid cells, with prominent nucleoli. The role of thorough sampling of the lesion, with multiple passes of various sites, cannot be overemphasized.

Overexpression of beta-human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG) is frequently associated with germ cell tumours, especially choriocarcinoma. Ectopic secretion of β-hCG by non-small cell lung cancer is exceptional. We present an exceedingly rare case of pulmonary adenocarcinoma that secretes β-hCG. Our patient is a 62-year-old postmenopausal woman, a nonsmoker, who presented with a six-month history of progressive dyspnoea, associated with decreased appetite and significant weight loss. Her serum β-hCG was very high (11211.9 mIU/ml), which prompted investigations to exclude germ cell tumour. Radiological imaging revealed a 10-cm right lung mass with adrenal metastasis. No other focal lesions were detected. Microscopy of the lung biopsy specimen showed replacement of normal lung tissue by sheets of malignant cells, forming vague glands in some areas. Immunohistochemically, the malignant cells showed focal immunopositivity for thyroid transcription factor 1 (TTF-1), napsin A, cytokeratin 7 (CK7) and β-hCG. A diagnosis of β-hCG-secreting pulmonary poorly differentiated adenocarcinoma was rendered. Serum β-hCG level decreased significantly to 168.6 mIU/ml after the first cycle of chemotherapy. In conclusion, β-hCG expression in lung cancer should be recognised to facilitate prompt diagnosis and initiation of appropriate intervention.

Follicular lymphoma is characterised by the t(14;18)(q32;q21) chromosomal translocation causing BCL2 protein overexpression. A proportion of follicular lymphomas do not carry the t(14;18) translocation and lacked BCL2 protein expression. We describe a case of a BCL2 protein- and t(14;18)-negative follicular lymphoma that caused diagnostic difficulty. The usefulness of several immunomarkers including Ki67, CD79a and CD21 in aiding the diagnosis is discussed. The patient is a 51-year-old male who presented with gradually enlarging lymphadenopathy. Histopathological examination of the lymph node showed complete architectural effacement by neoplastic follicles containing expanded CD21-positive follicular dendritic cell meshwork. The neoplastic cells expressed pan-B cell markers (CD20, CD79a) and germinal centre marker (BCL6) but not BCL2 and CD10. Of interest are the staining patterns of Ki67 and CD79a. We observed that the Ki67- positive proliferating cells were evenly distributed within the neoplastic follicles without zonation. In addition, CD79a was homogeneously strong within the neoplastic follicles. These staining patterns were distinctly different from that observed in reactive lymphoid follicles. Fluorescent insitu hybridisation (FISH) analysis however showed absence of BCL2 gene rearrangement. Despite the atypical immunophenotype and lack of BCL2 gene rearrangement, the diagnosis of follicular lymphoma was made based on careful observation of the morphology as well as immunoarchitecture of the Ki67, CD79a and CD21 markers.

Hurthle cells are not uncommonly encountered in thyroid fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) smears. They are easily recognized by their distinct cytomorphology in cytological preparations, i.e. large, polygonal cells displaying uniform, rounded nuclei, often prominent nucleoli and abundant granular cytoplasm. Hurthle cells can be seen in both non-neoplastic and neoplastic thyroid lesions which can pose diagnostic dilemma to cytopathologists, especially when the lesions are focally sampled. We describe a case of solitary thyroid nodule in a 46-year-old male, whose aspirates comprised predominantly of Hurthle cells exhibiting nuclear features suspicious of papillary carcinoma, which turned out to be Hurthle cell carcinoma on subsequent histological sections. The potential diagnostic pitfalls of Hurthle cell lesions and associated conditions in thyroid FNA are discussed. The presence of Hurthle cell change in a wide variety of thyroid lesions can be diagnostically challenging. However, accurate diagnosis can still be made with careful observation of the predominant cell population, nuclear features and whether there is abundant colloid or lymphocytes in the background.

Gardnerella vaginalis (GV) is a facultatively anaerobic gram-variable bacillus and is the major organism involved in bacterial vaginosis. GV-associated bacterial vaginosis has been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes include preterm parturition and subclinical chorioamnionitis. Inflammatory response induced by GV presents paediatric problems as well. Studies had shown that increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines include TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 following fetal inflammatory response syndrome secondary to GV-induced intrauterine infection may result in the development of periventricular leukomalacia and bronchopulmonary dysplasia in the infected fetus. There is increasing evidence that GV-associated BV infection serves as a risk factor for long-term neurological complications, such as cerebral palsy and learning disability. GV is fastidious and could elude conventional detection methods such as bacterial cultures. With current more sophisticated molecular biology detection methods, its role and pathogenic effects have been shown to have a greater impact on intrauterine inflammation and fetal/neonatal infection. This review gives an overview on the characteristics of GV and its virulence properties. Its detrimental role in causing unfavourable GV-related perinatal outcomes, with emphasis on the possible mechanistic pathways is discussed. The discovery of disease mechanisms allows the building of a strong platform where further research on innovative therapies can be based on, for instance, an anti-TLR monoclonal antibody as therapeutic agent to halt inflammation-precipitate adverse perinatal outcomes.
bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Gardnerella vaginalis (GV) is a facultatively anaerobic gram-variable bacillus and is the major organism involved in bacterial vaginosis. GV-associated bacterial vaginosis has been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes include preterm parturition and subclinical chorioamnionitis. Inflammatory response induced by GV presents paediatric problems as well. Studies had shown that increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines include TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 following fetal inflammatory response syndrome secondary to GV-induced intrauterine infection may result in the development of periventricular leukomalacia and bronchopulmonary dysplasia in the infected fetus. There is increasing evidence that GV-associated BV infection serves as a risk factor for long-term neurological complications, such as cerebral palsy and learning disability. GV is fastidious and could elude conventional detection methods such as bacterial cultures. With current more sophisticated molecular biology detection methods, its role and pathogenic effects have been shown to have a greater impact on intrauterine inflammation and fetal/neonatal infection. This review gives an overview on the characteristics of GV and its virulence properties. Its detrimental role in causing unfavourable GV-related perinatal outcomes, with emphasis on the possible mechanistic pathways is discussed. The discovery of disease mechanisms allows the building of a strong platform where further research on innovative therapies can be based on, for instance, an anti-TLR monoclonal antibody as therapeutic agent to halt inflammation-precipitate adverse perinatal outcomes.
bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Yolk sac tumour (YST) or endodermal sinus tumour is rare and typically seen in gonads. Case Report: We described a case of extragonadal vaginal YST in a one year and seven months old girl who presented with vaginal discharge and bleeding, and discuss its differential diagnosis and potential pitfalls in immunohistochemistry. She was found to have a suprapubic mass on examination. The serum alpha fetoprotein was 11919.4 ng/mL. Computed tomography of the pelvis revealed a large 6.4 cm heterogenous pelvic mass. Colposcopic examination of the pelvis showed a fungating vaginal mass that was subsequently confirmed as a yolk sac tumour. Immunohistochemically, the malignant cells were positive toward CKAE1/AE3, AFP and glypican-3, as well as CD117. Discussion: Solid pattern extragonadal vaginal YST may morphologically resemble dysgerminoma that is also CD117 positive, while the glandular pattern YST may have clear cytoplasm and is positive for cytokeratin; hence, may resemble clear cell carcinoma. Being mindful of these potential diagnostic caveats is necessary to prevent misdiagnosis.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a necessary cause of cervical cancer and its precursors. Increased expression of high-risk hrHPV viral oncogenes in abnormal cells might increase the expression of p16INK4a. We aimed to determine the role of p16INK4a in detecting hrHPV-transformed epithelial cells in liquid-based cervical cytology, and compared the results with hrHPV DNA testing by realtime polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Fifty-seven cytological samples were tested for p16INK4a immunomarker and hrHPV DNA. Test performance of both tests was determined by comparing sensitivity, specificity and predictive values using available histological follow-up data as gold standard. Of 57 samples, 36 (63.2%) showed immunoreactivity for p16INK4a and 43 (75.4%) were hrHPV-infected. A fairly low concordance rate (k = 0.504) between p16INK4a immunolabelling and hrHPV DNA status was noted. For prediction of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) II and worse lesions, p16INK4a had a sensitivity and specificity of 93.5% and 60%; whereas hrHPV DNA testing had a sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 20%. Dual testing by combining p16INK4a and hrHPV showed sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 33.3%. In conclusion, p16INK4a is useful in predicting severity of the cytological abnormalities. Although p16INK4a is more specific but less sensitive than hrHPV in detecting high-grade cervical lesions, a combination of both tests failed to demonstrate significant improvement in diagnostic sensitivity, specificity and predictive value. Larger-scale prospective studies are required to assess further whether this biomarker should be routinely used as primary screening tool independently or in combination with hrHPV testing to improve diagnostic accuracy in cervical cytology.

Introduction: Occult primary breast carcinoma (OBC) manifesting as axillary nodal metastasis without an identifiable breast primary is exceptionally rare. It continues to pose a diagnostic challenge to pathologists. Here, we report a case of OBC with emphasis on the usefulness of immunohistochemistry to determine the primary site of tumour. Case Report: A 58-year-old female presented with a 3-cm painless right axillary mass. Extensive radiological investigations that include mammography, ultrasonography of the breasts and positron emission tomography (PET) scan failed to conclude the primary site of the tumour. Histological examination of the lymph node revealed loosely cohesive sheets of poorly differentiated malignant cells, without discernible glandular or squamous differentiation. Immunohistochemically, the malignant cells exhibited diffuse immunoreactivity toward pan-cytokeratin and CK7, while leukocyte common antigen, S100 and CK20 were negative. A second panel of immunomarkers was carried out. The malignant cells expressed breast-specific markers (GATA-3, GCDFP-15 and mammaglobin), and were negative for ER, PR and TTF-1 immunohistochemistry. A diagnosis of OBC was rendered. Discussion: Breast primary must always be considered in the differential diagnosis in patients with sole presentation of axillary lymphadenopathy. The breast-specific immunomarkers play a pivotal role in the diagnosis of ER, PR-negative occult breast cancer.