Obesity has been considered a risk factor for infectious diseases including the influenza virus. Most epidemiological investigations indicated that obesity is connected to the severity of influenza, although there are some exceptions. Many studies using obese humans and animal models showed that immune response was impaired in the obese group, increasing susceptibility and severity of influenza virus. However, the exact mechanism by which obesity inhibits anti-viral immune response remains unknown. This review discusses current studies about the properties of immune cells in obesity. In obesity, the balance of adipokines is disrupted and the level of proinflammatory cytokine is increased compared with non-obese control. Moreover, macrophages induced systemic inflammation by secreting cytokines such as TNF-alpha and IL-6, antigen presenting capacity of dendritic cells was diminished which affect T cell responses, and influenza-specific antibody production seems reduced and decreased even faster after vaccination in obese mouse. The number of circulating T cells and proliferation of mitogen-stimulated T cells dropped and T cell memory was significantly low in influenza infected obese mouse. Therefore, obesity may be one of factors for disease progression in influenza virus infection and vaccine efficacy.
Adipokines ; Animals ; Antibody Formation ; Communicable Diseases ; Cytokines ; Dendritic Cells ; Disease Progression ; Humans ; Inflammation ; Influenza Vaccines ; Influenza, Human* ; Interleukin-6 ; Leptin ; Macrophages ; Memory ; Mice ; Mice, Obese ; Models, Animal ; Obesity* ; Orthomyxoviridae ; Pathology* ; Risk Factors ; T-Lymphocytes ; Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha ; Vaccination

BACKGROUND: Prostaglandins (PGs) play pathogenic and protective roles in inflammatory diseases. The novel concept of PGs as immune modulators is being documented by several investigators. By establishing an in vitro experimental model containing human follicular dendritic cell-like cells, HK cells, we reported that HK cells produce prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and prostaglandin I2 (PGI2) and that these PGs regulate biological functions of T and B cells. METHODS: To investigate the respective contribution of cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and COX-2 to PGE2 and PGI2 production in HK cells, we performed siRNA technology to knock down COX enzymes and examined the effect on PG production. RESULTS: Both PGE2 and PGI2 productions were almost completely inhibited by the depletion of COX-2. In contrast, COX-1 knockdown did not significantly affect PG production induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). CONCLUSION: The current results suggest that mPGES-1 and PGIS are coupled with COX-2 but not with COX-1 in human follicular dendritic cell (FDC) and may help understand the potential effects of selective COX inhibitors on the humoral immunity.
Cyclooxygenase 1 ; Cyclooxygenase 2 ; Dendritic Cells, Follicular ; Dinoprostone ; Epoprostenol ; Humans ; Immunity, Humoral ; Intramolecular Oxidoreductases ; Models, Theoretical ; Prostaglandins ; Research Personnel ; RNA, Small Interfering ; Stromal Cells

Evidence for immunoregulatory roles of prostaglandins (PGs) is accumulating. Since our observation of PG production by human follicular dendritic cells (FDCs), we investigated the regulatory mechanism of PG production in FDC and attempted to understand the functions of released PGs in the responses of adjacent lymphocytes. Here, using FDC-like cells, HK cells, we analyzed protein expression alterations in cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in the presence of IL-4 or histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors. Both IL-4 and HDAC inhibitors suppressed COX-2 expression in dose-dependent manners. Their effect was specific to COX-2 and did not reach to COX-1 expression. Interestingly, HDAC inhibitors gave rise to an opposing effect on COX-2 expression in peripheral blood monocytes. Our results suggest that IL-4 may regulate COX-2 expression in FDCs by affecting chromatin remodeling and provide insight into the role of cellular interactions between T cells and FDC during the GC reaction. Given the growing interests in wide-spectrum HDAC inhibitors, the differential results on COX-2 expression in HK cells and monocytes raise cautions on their clinical use.
Chromatin Assembly and Disassembly ; Cyclooxygenase 2 ; Dendritic Cells, Follicular ; Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors ; Histone Deacetylases ; Histones ; Humans ; Interleukin-4 ; Lymphocytes ; Monocytes ; Prostaglandins ; Stromal Cells ; T-Lymphocytes

BACKGROUND: Platelets take part in repairing the lesions of endothelial damage. To understand the molecular mechanism of this process, we tested the hypothesis that CD154 expressed on activated platelets stimulates proliferation of human endothelial cells. METHODS: The expression levels of CD154 and CD40 on platelets and endothelial cells, respectively, were measured by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Function-blocking monoclonal antibody against CD154 was developed after immunization with CD154- transfected L cells. RESULTS: An anti-CD40 agonist antibody and soluble CD154 both induced significant proliferation of endothelial cells. In addition, a function-blocking anti-CD154 antibody inhibited the platelet-induced proliferation of endothelial cells, indicating that the CD154-CD40 pathway is involved in these cellular interactions. An anti-VEGF antibody failed to inhibit the proliferation. This, in addition to the fact that very small amounts of VEGF are released from platelets or endothelial cells, suggests that VEGF does not play an important role in the platelet-stimulated proliferation of endothelial cells. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that platelets induce proliferation of endothelial cells by CD154-CD40 interactions independently of VEGF.
Blood Platelets ; Endothelial Cells ; Flow Cytometry ; Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells ; Humans ; Immunization ; Microscopy, Confocal ; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A

Syntenin is an adaptor molecule containing 2 PDZ domains which mediate molecular interactions with diverse integral or cytoplasmic proteins. Most of the results on the biological function of syntenin were obtained from studies with malignant cells, necessitating exploration into the role of syntenin in normal cells. To understand its role in normal cells, we investigated expression and function of syntenin in human lymphoid tissue and cells in situ and in vitro. Syntenin expression was denser in the germinal center than in the extrafollicular area. Inside the germinal center, syntenin expression was obvious in follicular dendritic cells (FDCs). Flow cytometric analysis with isolated cells confirmed a weak expression of syntenin in T and B cells and a strong expression in FDCs. In FDC-like cells, HK cells, most syntenin proteins were found in the cytoplasm compared to weak expression in the nucleus. To study the function of syntenin in FDC, we examined its role in the focal adhesion of HK cells by depleting syntenin by siRNA technology. Knockdown of syntenin markedly impaired focal adhesion kinase phosphorylation in HK cells. These results suggest that syntenin may play an important role in normal physiology as well as in cancer pathology.
B-Lymphocytes ; Cytoplasm ; Dendritic Cells, Follicular* ; Focal Adhesion Protein-Tyrosine Kinases* ; Focal Adhesions* ; Germinal Center ; Humans* ; Lymphoid Tissue ; PDZ Domains ; Phosphorylation ; Proteins ; RNA, Small Interfering ; Syntenins*