History of hospital is one of main fields of researches in medical history. Besides writing a history of an individual hospital, considerable efforts have been made to trace the origin of hospital. Those who quest for the origin of hospital are faced with an inevitable problem of defining hospital. As the different definition can lead to a different outcome, it is important to make a clear definition. In this article, the hospital was defined as an institution in which patients are housed and given medical treatments. According to the definition, the Great Basilius is regarded to have created the first hospital in 369 CE. The creation of hospital is considered to be closely related with Christian philantrophy. However, the question is raised against this explanation. As the religious philantrophy does not exclusively belong to the Christianity alone, more comprehensive and persuasive theory should be proposed to explain why the first hospital was created in the Christian World, not in the Buddhistic or other religious world. Furthermore, in spite of sharing the same Christian background, why the first hospital appeared in Byzantine Empire, not in Western Roman Empire, also should be explained. My argument is that Asclepius cult and the favorable attitude toward medicine in Greek world are responsible to the appearance of the first hospital in Byzantine Empire. The evangelic work of Jesus was heavily depended on healing activities. The healing activities of Jesus and his disciples were rivalled by Asclepius cult which had been widely spread and practiced in the Hellenistic world. The temples of Asclepius served as a model for hospital, for the temples were the institution exclusively reserved for the patients. The exclusive housing of patients alone in the temples of Asclepius is clearly contrasted with the other early forms of hospitals in which not only patients but also the poor, foreigners and pilgrims were housed altogether. Toward the healing god Asclepius, the Latin Church fathers and Greek Church fathers showed significant difference of attitudes. The Latin fathers were generally very critical on Asclepius while the Greek fathers were more favorable to the same healing god. This difference is also considered to be an important factor that can explain why the first hospital appeared in the Byzantine Empire.
Byzantium ; Christianity* ; Emigrants and Immigrants ; Fathers ; Greek World ; Housing ; Humans ; Parturition* ; Roman World ; Writing

This paper strongly rejects the notion that the use of biomedical terms to represent traditional Chinese medical concepts is helpful to the internationalization of Chinese medicine. It further argues that this practice destroys the integrity and independence of Chinese medical concepts. Taking the term fēng huo yan as an example, it shows that the biomedical term "acute conjunctivitis" often suggested as the translation for this term is unsatisfactory, because (1) the clinical reference is not identical, (2) it introduces the concepts of "conjunctiva" and "inflammation" , which are not Chinese medical concepts, and (3) destroys the Chinese medical concepts "wind" and "fire" expressed in the Chinese, which reflect the way the disease is traditionally diagnosed and treated. While for English readers not familiar with Chinese medicine, "acute conjunctivitis" may be immediately intelligible, for those seeking a deep understanding of the subject, the literal translation (loan translation) "wind-fire eye" is much more helpful. This paper supports these arguments with numerous other examples.
Humans ; Language ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Terminology as Topic ; Translating ; Western World

Since the first case of Ebola virus disease (EVD) in Guinea was reported in March 2014 by World Health Organization (WHO), the outbreak has continued through the year and the total number of 19,065 patients was reported as the confirmed or suspected in the EVD-affected countries. Among the cases, 7,388 patients were reported death by 19 December. Currently, available therapeutics to treat the infected patients or vaccines to prevent people from infection is not developed yet while viral diagnostic methods were already developed and firmly established in a lot of countries as a first step for the preparedness of Ebola outbreak. Some potential therapeutic materials including ZMapp were supplied and the treated people got over the EVD. Several candidates of vaccines also were investigated their efficacy in animal models by National Institute of Health (NIH) and Department of Defense, and they are processing of clinical tests in West Africa aiming to finish the development by the 2015. Vaccine and therapeutic development is essential to stop the EVD outbreak in West Africa, also to protect the world from the risk which can be generated by potential spread of Ebola virus.
Africa, Western ; Ebolavirus ; Guinea ; Hemorrhagic Fever, Ebola ; Humans ; Models, Animal ; Vaccines ; World Health Organization

Generally it has been thought that the modern western medicine was introduced into Korea by Japanese physicians and Western missionaries. But some recent studies have revealed that in the late Choson period, Koreans and Korean government played the essential roles in the introduction of it. This paper summarized and discussed the self-reliant activities of Koreans at the time, mainly in introducing the smallpox vaccination method and establishing Jejoong-Won Hospital, the first modern hospital in Korea.
English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; Hospitals/*history ; Korea ; *Medicine ; Smallpox/*history ; Vaccination/*history ; Western World

BACKGROUNDS: There has been some discordance in the prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) probably due to different diagnostic criteria used by different study groups. The aims of this study was to determine the degree of agreement between different standard definitions and to test the validity of applying these different standards in epidemiological investigations of IBS among Korean population. METHODS: We recruited 1,038 patients who visited Yongdong Severance Hosipital for medical checkup and gave out the prepared questionnaires. Based on the returned questionnaires, degree of agreement between Manning, Rome I, and Rome II criteria was investigated by percent agreement and calculating kappa statics. Furthermore, clinical characteristics in different definition groups and patients of self-reported IBS were investigated and compared. RESULTS: Complete questionnaires were returned by 928 out of 1,038 subjects. The percent agreements ranged from 80.7 to 96.7 percent and kappa values ranged from 0.20 to 0.59. Best agreement occurred between Manning and Rome I criteria. Many subjects diagnosed as not having IBS by various diagnostic criteria of IBS thought themselves as having IBS. More sizable number of patients were suspected to have structural gastrointestinal diseases in IBS patients diagnosed by Manning, Rome I, and Rome II criteria compared with self-reported IBS subjects. CONCLUSIONS: It could be suspected that results of epidemiological investigations might be different according to standard definitions applied on each studies. Furthermore, some modifications of existing standard definitions of Western world would be required before applying them among Korean population.
Gastrointestinal Diseases ; Humans ; Irritable Bowel Syndrome* ; Prevalence ; Western World ; Surveys and Questionnaires

Endoscopic submucosal dissection is a technically challenging but highly effective technique for the treatment of well selected early neoplasms in the digestive tract. Although it is frequently performed in East Asian countries, the Western world has not adopted this technique yet, probably due in part to the difficulty to learn it. Ex vivo and in vivo animal models are invaluable tools to overcome at least the beginning of the learning curve, although the initial step is the acquisition of basic knowledge about early diagnosis of neoplasias, and observing real procedures in expert centers. The practical issues, advantages, and disadvantages of the ex vivo and in vivo models are discussed.
Asian Continental Ancestry Group ; Early Diagnosis ; Gastrointestinal Tract ; Humans ; Learning Curve ; Models, Animal ; Western World

This thesis examines the academical trend of Oriental Medicine in the Japanese colonial period observed through medical books published during the Japanese colonial period. This is a period in which Western Medicine was introduced, and due to the lean-to-one-side policy by the Japanese, Western Medicine became the mainstream medical science while Oriental Medicine was pushed to the outskirts. Even after all this, the academic activity was flourishing during this period compared to any other periods. This article is divide into various chapters each with its own theme in order to understand the academic trend of Oriental Medicine during the Japanese colonial period. Focusing on the publication of medical books, this article is divided and observed according to various themes such as the study of Dong-Eui-Bo-Gam, the study of Bang-Yak-Hap-Pyeun, the study of Sang-Han-Ron, the study of Sa-sang constitutional medicine, the study of Eui-Hak-Ip-Mun, the study about Bu-Yang-Ron, On-Bo-Ron, and pediatrics, compromise between Western and Oriental Medicine, the study of experience medicine, the study of acupuncture and moxibustion, and etc.
Western World/history ; Medicine, Oriental Traditional/*history ; Japan ; Humans ; History, 20th Century ; Colonialism/*history ; Books/history

BACKGROUND: Basal cell carcinoma (BCC) is the most prevalent cancer in the western world, showing a rapid increase in incidence. Activation of the Sonic hedgehog/Patched (PTCH) and is sisnalling pathway, due to PTCH inactivation, is a key event in sporadic and familial BCC development in humans and is associated with transcriptional activation of specific target genes, including GLI-1. Recently, PTCH inactivation by UV-specific mutation has been reported to develop BCC. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the expression pattern of GLI-1 oncogene in BCC of sun-exposed and non-exposed areas of skin. METHOD: We examined 20 cases of BCC, and 4 cases of BCC occurring in sun-exposed and non-exposed areas, using an immunohistochemical method with paraffin-embedded sections. RESULTS: The results were as follows. 1. All cases of BCC showed a positive staining for GLI-1 protein. 2. In the staining pattern of GLI-1 protein, BCC in both sun-exposed and non-exposed areas showed diffuse staining throughout the tumor lobules. Moreover, the degree of staining was not found to be different between the BCC of sun-exposed and non-exposed areas. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that increased GLI-1 expression is important for BCC development. And multiple factors, including PTCH mutation due to UV irradiation, may affect GLI-1 expression.
Carcinoma, Basal Cell* ; Humans ; Incidence ; Oncogenes ; Skin ; Transcriptional Activation ; Western World

There is a growing evidence that gastroesophageal reflux disease is related to several upper gastrointestinal cancers, mainly the esophageal adenocarcinoma and a certain type of gastric cardia adenocarcinoma. Currently, the incidence of gastroesophageal reflux disease is rapidly increasing in Korea. Therefore, there is a possibility of such increasing cancerous incidents, similar to the western worlds. In this article, the relationship between gastroesophageal reflux disease and several upper gastrointestinal cancers, the components of refluxate which has possible causal relationship with carcinogenesis, and the clinical implications of such relationship in the management of gastroesophageal reflux disease patients are discussed through the review of literature.
Adenocarcinoma ; Cardia ; Fundoplication ; Gastroesophageal Reflux ; Gastrointestinal Neoplasms ; Humans ; Incidence ; Korea ; Western World

On the record 1995 is the 100th anniversary of Western medical education in our country which began with the opening of the Vaccinators' Training Center, but the actual history of Korea's Western medical education is 97 years old. To become vaccinators the students underwent training for a month including the manufacturing of vaccine and the practicing of vaccination. These vaccinators were the first vaccination specialists trained in Western medicine in our country. Their service included vaccination as well as education. These professionals of Western medicine. in spite of a short period of their training, saved countless human lives, contributing greatly to the welfare of society. In the years 1897-1898, there were quite a number of foreign missionary medical doctors in Korea, who were providing Western medical education each according to their own need. Some of the examples were Wells and Follwell in Pyongyang, Johnson in Taegu, and Scranton, Avison, and Rosetta Hall in Seoul. They were all medical doctors who received regular medical education and were engaged in clinical medicine. Meanwhile, Japanese medical doctors, who were educated in Western medicine, were operating hospitals in Pusan, Wonsan, Inchun, and Seoul. They did not provide medical education, but they employed Koreans as their assistants. Under such circumstances. the Chosun Government-General belatedly inaugurated the Uihakkyo Medical School. This medical school had a three-year course of Western medicine, but there was only two instructor trained in Western medicine and the remaining teaching members were all doctors of Oriental medicine. By regulations the curriculum included such subjects of Western medicine as zoology, botany, chemistry, physics, anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, diagnosis, internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, ophthalmology, etc. The fact that to teach these subjects, non-medical persons were nominated as professors simple because they were equipped with knowledge of medicine, law and medicaments, makes it easy for us to imagine what the contents of the lectures would have been. After 1905, the Western medical education in Korea was severely interfered in by the Japanese authorities, and the name of the medical school was changed several times -Taehan Hospital Educational Department, Medical Educational Department, Attached Medical School, etc. The entire faculty of this medical school consisted of Japanese. Accordingly, the control over Government medical education in Korea was placed in the power of the Japanese authorities. To learn Western medicine Korean students had to endure humiliation and disdain from Japanese professors who took pleasure in showing off their talent and knowledge and satisfying their sense of superiority. After 1910 when Korea was annexed to Japan, Koreans had to receive Japanese education unconditionally. The government Uihakkyo Medical School was transformed into the status of a medical training center and was attached to the Medical Educational Section of the Government-General Hospital, barely retaining the name of a medical school. Korean students received medical education submissively suffering the haughtiness, disdain and prejudice from Japanese professors and follow students. Even after their graduation, Korean students had to meet the same situation. Thus, some academically eager graduates, for the purpose of furthering their study and research under liberal circumstances, went to Germany, which at that time was known for its most advanced medical sciences in the world. However, since the Japanese authorities including the professors did not make much of the Koreans studying in Germany, some of the graduates who were eager for further study had to continue their study under the Japanese professors. Thus the achievements of the Korean medical pioneers were the product of their sacrificial efforts and hardships. In this connection the author has described the achievements of the Korean professors, though small in number (5 professors, 6 assistant professors, and 10 instructors), who did their study and research at their alma mater. Also given in this article are data on the dissertations by 104 of our medical pathfinders, including the titles, the dates when degrees were awarded and the names of colleges where their dissertations were defended etc.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Western World