History of hospital is one of main fields of researches in medical history. Besides writing a history of an individual hospital, considerable efforts have been made to trace the origin of hospital. Those who quest for the origin of hospital are faced with an inevitable problem of defining hospital. As the different definition can lead to a different outcome, it is important to make a clear definition. In this article, the hospital was defined as an institution in which patients are housed and given medical treatments. According to the definition, the Great Basilius is regarded to have created the first hospital in 369 CE. The creation of hospital is considered to be closely related with Christian philantrophy. However, the question is raised against this explanation. As the religious philantrophy does not exclusively belong to the Christianity alone, more comprehensive and persuasive theory should be proposed to explain why the first hospital was created in the Christian World, not in the Buddhistic or other religious world. Furthermore, in spite of sharing the same Christian background, why the first hospital appeared in Byzantine Empire, not in Western Roman Empire, also should be explained. My argument is that Asclepius cult and the favorable attitude toward medicine in Greek world are responsible to the appearance of the first hospital in Byzantine Empire. The evangelic work of Jesus was heavily depended on healing activities. The healing activities of Jesus and his disciples were rivalled by Asclepius cult which had been widely spread and practiced in the Hellenistic world. The temples of Asclepius served as a model for hospital, for the temples were the institution exclusively reserved for the patients. The exclusive housing of patients alone in the temples of Asclepius is clearly contrasted with the other early forms of hospitals in which not only patients but also the poor, foreigners and pilgrims were housed altogether. Toward the healing god Asclepius, the Latin Church fathers and Greek Church fathers showed significant difference of attitudes. The Latin fathers were generally very critical on Asclepius while the Greek fathers were more favorable to the same healing god. This difference is also considered to be an important factor that can explain why the first hospital appeared in the Byzantine Empire.
Byzantium ; Christianity* ; Emigrants and Immigrants ; Fathers ; Greek World ; Housing ; Humans ; Parturition* ; Roman World ; Writing

This paper strongly rejects the notion that the use of biomedical terms to represent traditional Chinese medical concepts is helpful to the internationalization of Chinese medicine. It further argues that this practice destroys the integrity and independence of Chinese medical concepts. Taking the term fēng huo yan as an example, it shows that the biomedical term "acute conjunctivitis" often suggested as the translation for this term is unsatisfactory, because (1) the clinical reference is not identical, (2) it introduces the concepts of "conjunctiva" and "inflammation" , which are not Chinese medical concepts, and (3) destroys the Chinese medical concepts "wind" and "fire" expressed in the Chinese, which reflect the way the disease is traditionally diagnosed and treated. While for English readers not familiar with Chinese medicine, "acute conjunctivitis" may be immediately intelligible, for those seeking a deep understanding of the subject, the literal translation (loan translation) "wind-fire eye" is much more helpful. This paper supports these arguments with numerous other examples.
Humans ; Language ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Terminology as Topic ; Translating ; Western World

On the record 1995 is the 100th anniversary of Western medical education in our country which began with the opening of the Vaccinators' Training Center, but the actual history of Korea's Western medical education is 97 years old. To become vaccinators the students underwent training for a month including the manufacturing of vaccine and the practicing of vaccination. These vaccinators were the first vaccination specialists trained in Western medicine in our country. Their service included vaccination as well as education. These professionals of Western medicine. in spite of a short period of their training, saved countless human lives, contributing greatly to the welfare of society. In the years 1897-1898, there were quite a number of foreign missionary medical doctors in Korea, who were providing Western medical education each according to their own need. Some of the examples were Wells and Follwell in Pyongyang, Johnson in Taegu, and Scranton, Avison, and Rosetta Hall in Seoul. They were all medical doctors who received regular medical education and were engaged in clinical medicine. Meanwhile, Japanese medical doctors, who were educated in Western medicine, were operating hospitals in Pusan, Wonsan, Inchun, and Seoul. They did not provide medical education, but they employed Koreans as their assistants. Under such circumstances. the Chosun Government-General belatedly inaugurated the Uihakkyo Medical School. This medical school had a three-year course of Western medicine, but there was only two instructor trained in Western medicine and the remaining teaching members were all doctors of Oriental medicine. By regulations the curriculum included such subjects of Western medicine as zoology, botany, chemistry, physics, anatomy, physiology, pharmacology, diagnosis, internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, ophthalmology, etc. The fact that to teach these subjects, non-medical persons were nominated as professors simple because they were equipped with knowledge of medicine, law and medicaments, makes it easy for us to imagine what the contents of the lectures would have been. After 1905, the Western medical education in Korea was severely interfered in by the Japanese authorities, and the name of the medical school was changed several times -Taehan Hospital Educational Department, Medical Educational Department, Attached Medical School, etc. The entire faculty of this medical school consisted of Japanese. Accordingly, the control over Government medical education in Korea was placed in the power of the Japanese authorities. To learn Western medicine Korean students had to endure humiliation and disdain from Japanese professors who took pleasure in showing off their talent and knowledge and satisfying their sense of superiority. After 1910 when Korea was annexed to Japan, Koreans had to receive Japanese education unconditionally. The government Uihakkyo Medical School was transformed into the status of a medical training center and was attached to the Medical Educational Section of the Government-General Hospital, barely retaining the name of a medical school. Korean students received medical education submissively suffering the haughtiness, disdain and prejudice from Japanese professors and follow students. Even after their graduation, Korean students had to meet the same situation. Thus, some academically eager graduates, for the purpose of furthering their study and research under liberal circumstances, went to Germany, which at that time was known for its most advanced medical sciences in the world. However, since the Japanese authorities including the professors did not make much of the Koreans studying in Germany, some of the graduates who were eager for further study had to continue their study under the Japanese professors. Thus the achievements of the Korean medical pioneers were the product of their sacrificial efforts and hardships. In this connection the author has described the achievements of the Korean professors, though small in number (5 professors, 6 assistant professors, and 10 instructors), who did their study and research at their alma mater. Also given in this article are data on the dissertations by 104 of our medical pathfinders, including the titles, the dates when degrees were awarded and the names of colleges where their dissertations were defended etc.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, 19th Cent. ; History of Medicine, 20th Cent. ; Korea ; Western World

A new method for the comparison of the treatment efficacy for specific diseases or conditions between Chinese medicine and Western medicine, which serve the same medical aim but are based on substantially different theoretical systems, was identified. Abiding by the principle of parallel subgroup design of a randomized controlled trial (PSD-RCT), participants were recruited following identical inclusion and exclusion criteria and were randomly allocated into two groups to receive treatment using the respective approaches of Chinese medicine and Western medicine. The Chinese medicine group was divided into subgroups according to the theory of Chinese medicine and the Western medicine group was also divided into subgroups according to the theory of Western medicine. The treatment for each subgroup was well defined in the protocol, including major formulae and principles for individualized modifications. The primary outcome measure was ascertained to be directly related to the patients' status but independent from both theories of Chinese medicine and Western medicine, while the secondary outcomes were represented by the patient-reported outcomes and some laboratory tests commonly accepted by Chinese medicine and Western medicine. Then, taking functional dyspepsia as an example, the authors explain the framework of the PSD-RCT for efficacy comparisons between Chinese medicine and Western medicine, and recommend that the PSD-RCT can be used to compare treatment efficacy for a specific disease or condition between Chinese medicine and Western medicine, and the comparison among subgroups can provide valuable clues for further studies.
Dyspepsia ; therapy ; Humans ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic ; Research Design ; Treatment Outcome ; Western World

Metastasis and recurrence of tumors is the chief cause of death for such patients. Therefore, researches on the mechanism of its metastasis, prevention and treatment are the focal points in the field of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and Western medicine (WM) at present. WM practitioners' study on tumor metastasis involved its occurrence and development including every detail and process, and now it even has developed into the molecular biological field. In treatment surgical operation and radio-chemotherapy is used as the main means, but the efficacy is not too optimistic. In recent years, TCM, as part of the comprehensive therapy, has been gradually gaining attention of oncologists. Aimed at solving the difficult problems in metastasis of tumor, many TCM practitioners on the basis of syndrome differentiation have raised theories about the cause of tumor metastasis. On the basis of these theories, some TCM recipes against tumor metastasis have been developed to serve as an effective supplement to surgical operation, radio- and chemotherapy. The present article summarizes research results in recent years about the cause of formation of tumor and its metastasis by TCM and WM, so as to offer some theoretical clues to the study of tumor's metastasis.
Drugs, Chinese Herbal ; therapeutic use ; Humans ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Neoplasm Metastasis ; diagnosis ; therapy ; Western World

Fracture Fixation ; methods ; Fractures, Bone ; therapy ; Humans ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Minimally Invasive Surgical Procedures ; Western World

The medical system of the Koryo Kingdom was maintained by the Chosen Dynasty without much change. In the meantime, with the tide of enlightenment surging into the Korean Peninsula. Western medicine was introduced into this land and began to be recognized as a reliable, new healing art. At that time, Western medicine was highly valued by court officials and some upper-class people. However, the greater part of the general public preferred Oriental medicine on account of their long tradition and failed to understand the importance of Western medicine. With the Kabo-Kyongjang(Reformation), Korea, in imitation of Japan, began pursuing the policy of enlightenment. Meanwhile, Japan drove China out of Korea and later succeeded in Russia's encroachment upon the Korean Peninsula. By so doing, Japan actively began interfering in Korea's national affairs, politically, diplomatically and militarily. Japan applied to Korea the same, even harsher, method that it used at the time of the Meiji Restoration and began to encroach upon Korea's sovereignty. Under the circumstances, the medical circle in Korea was not free from the influence of Japan, either. By a method even more cold-hearted than that it adopted to estrange Oriental medical doctors from their society at the beginning of the Meiji restoration Japan suppressed Korean Oriental medical doctors and removed then from the Korean officialdom. The Japanese authorities showed favor only for a small number of western medical doctors, and in accordance with the policy of the Tonggambu, reorganized or newly established governmental and public medical organizations as they desired. Furthermore, Japan, which already had an excess of medical doctors, had a large number of their medical doctors migrate into Korea as a means of invasion. The policy of priority for Western medical doctors resulted in relegating all Oriental medical doctors in Korea to the status of medical people with a limited licence called "Uisaeng". The government authorities did not permit the creation of research and educational organizations for Oriental medicine. Moreover, they attempted at disunity and self-destruction in the circle of Oriental medical doctors in Korea. However, as all Korean people did at that time, Korean Oriental medical doctors demonstrated patriotic spirit in the movement of maintaining and restoring Oriental medicine in Korea. Nevertheless they were powerless and eventually had to submissively obey the Japanese policy of adopting Western medicine only as a means of "protecting and improving" the health of the people. In this situation, Korean Oriental medical doctors were farced to acquire knowledge on Western medicine through seminars and lectures at teaching institutes, which led to the emergence of medical doctors peculiar to Korea called "Uisaeng". Some traditional-minded Oriental medical doctors hid themselves among the public mass and conducted medical practice under the sign "Shinnong Yuop". Japan still refuges publically at the governmental level or otherwise to acknowledge that its culture originated from Korea. However, general tourists as well as students who tour Korea under the guidance of their teachers are fully convinced that the origin of their culture is Korea by the time they return home. Some Japanese are unwillingly to admit that Koreans taught medicine to their ancestors. It is true that Japanese preceeded Koreans in importing Western medicine. However, they still treasure numerous Oriental medical books authored by Korean scholars, are engaged in the study and research of the abstruse principles of Oriental medicine, and apply the results of their research to the development of new medicines. At the end of this articles, the author wants to reach the following conclusion : In an excessive indulgence in importing new culture from Europe, Japan exterminated Oriental medicine in its land at the time of Meiji Restoration, defining it as unscientific. Likewise, it suppressed Oriental medical doctors in Korea including "Yuui" terming them together "Uisaeng", in disregard of Korean tradition and scientific principles of Oriental medicine. This was done under the pretext of improving the sanitary environment but the reform of the medical system was part of the Japanese colonial policy. It is noteworthy that the Japanese policy resulted in the continued existence of Oriental medicine in the form of folk medicine peculiar to Korea in which Oriental medicine is blended with Western medicine. From this, it is presumed that the Japanese "Uisaeng" system conversely opened a way for the restoration of Oriental medicine in Korea.
Education, Medical/*history ; English Abstract ; History of Medicine, Modern ; Japan ; Korea ; Medicine, Oriental Traditional/*history ; Western World

To explore advantages of Chinese medicine (CM) by analyzing differences in the origin of philosophy for human health between CM and Western medicine (WM). Methodologically, a distinctive feature of CM is its systems theory, which is also the difference between CM and WM. Since the birth of CM, it has taken the human body as a whole from the key concepts of "qi, blood, yin-yang, viscera (Zang-Fu), and meridian and channel", rather than a single cell or a particular organ. WM evolves from the Western philosophic way of thinking and merely uses natural sciences as the foundation. The development of WM is based on human structures, or anatomy, and therefore, research of WM is also based on the way of thinking of decomposing the whole human body into several independent parts, which is the impetus of promoting the development of WM. The core of CM includes the holistic view and the dialectical view. Chinese herbal medicines contain various components and treat a disease from multiple targets and links. Therefore, Chinese herbal medicines treat a diseased state by regulating and mobilizing the whole body rather than just regulating a single factor, since the diseased state is not only a problem in a local part of the body but a local reflection of imbalance of the whole body.
Holistic Health ; Humans ; Integrative Medicine ; Medicine ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; Philosophy ; Systems Biology ; Western World

Complementary Therapies ; utilization ; Humans ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; utilization ; Physician-Patient Relations ; Singapore ; Western World

Humans ; Medicine, Chinese Traditional ; trends ; Models, Theoretical ; Patient Care ; trends ; Western World