Dementia is defined as a syndrome which is characterized by various impairments in cognitive functions, especially memory function, Most of the diagnostic criteria for dementia include memory impairment as no essential feature. Memory decline can be present as a consequence of the aging process, But it does not cause significant distress or impairment in social and occupational functionings while dementiadoes. Depression may also be associated with memory impairment. funcitionings while dementiadoes. Depression may also be associated with memory impairment. However, unlike dementia, depression dose not cause decrease in delayed verbal learning and recognition memory. In dementia, different features of memory impairment may be present depending on the involved area. Memory impairment in cortical dementia is affected by the disturbance of encoding of information and memory consolidation, while memory imparnene in subcrotical denentiy is affected y the disturbance of retrieval in subcortial dementia.
Aging ; Dementia ; Depression ; Humans ; Memory* ; Verbal Learning

Language Development ; Speech Therapy ; Verbal Learning ; Child

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to develop the computerized memory tests for Korea adults. It also aimed at evaluating the reliability and validity of these tests and providing their normative data. METHODS: Computerized versions of digit span, visual span, auditory verbal learning test, and visual learning test were developed through several steps of preliminary applications and corrections. The test-retest reliabilites of each test was evaluated by the paired t-test and Pearson's correlation coefficient using the data from 27 normal persons. The validity of each test was evaluated by the Pearsons's correlation coefficient between the computerized test scores and the pre-existing cognitive function tests using the data from 48 normal persons. The normative data were obtained from the 150 Korean adults, age 20 to 50, whose educational levels were higher than high school graduate. RESULTS: There were no statistical differences between the means of the test and retest scores. High correlations were also observed between the tests and the retest scores (r ranged from 0.405 to 0.873). The computerized digit span, visual span, and auditory verbal learning tests scores were highly correlated with the pre-existing memory measures. The computerized memory test scores were greatly influenced by the educational level. The visual learning test seems useful, however, it requires methodological refinement. The normative data and guidelines for interpretation were provided. CONCLUSIONS: Clinically applicable computerized memory assessment tools with high reliability and validity were developed. The normative data for the Korean adults aged 20 to 50 were obtained and the guidelines for the interpretation were provided.
Adult* ; Humans ; Korea ; Learning ; Memory* ; Reproducibility of Results ; Verbal Learning

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this research was to investigate the differences of symptoms and neurocognitive functions with good and poor social functioning schizophrenic outpatients. METHOD: 152 schizophrenic outpatients were divided to good social functioning group(n=26) and poor social functioning group(n=126) based on the instrumental role of workers or students. Neurocognitive functions of these patient groups were compared with normal control group, which was composed of 30 healthy persons without a history of psychiatric illness. Schizophrenic symptoms were assessed by the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale(PANSS). Neurocognitive function tests include the sustained attention, sensory register, executive function, concentration and attention, and verbal memory and learning assessed with Degraded Stimulus Continuous Performance Test(DS-CPT), Span Apprehension Task(SAT), Wisconsin Card Sorting Test(WCST), Digit Span(DS), and Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test(RAVLT). RESULTS: 1) No significant differences were noted in the symptom subtypes of PANSS between good and poor social functioning patient groups. 2) The poor social functioning patient group showed significant deficits in the sustained attention, sensory register, concentration and attention, and verbal memory and learning as manifested in the data of DS-CPT, SAT, DS, and RAVLT compared with normal control and good social functioning patient groups. But there were no differences in these neurocognitive functions between good social functioning patient group and normal control group. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggested that some neurocognitive deficits such as sustained attention, sensory register, concentration and attention, and verbal memory and learning may be more important factors than symptoms for social functioning in the stable schizophrenic outpatients.
Executive Function ; Humans ; Learning ; Memory ; Outpatients ; Schizophrenia ; Verbal Learning ; Wisconsin

This quasi-experimental study was done to test the effects of metamemory enhancing program for elderly women. Data were collected 12 to 30, August 2002 from 34elderly women over 65 years living in Busan city. Subjects were 15 of experimental group and 19 of control group. The metamemory enhancing program was developed by five sessions composing of 1.5-2.0 hours one session. In experiment group, this program was performed for three weeks, twice per week. The degrees of four memory performance tasks were measured using instrument of Elderly Verbal Learning Test(Choi Kyung Mi. 1988) and Face Recognition Instrument(Min Hye Sook, 1999) and the metamemory were measured using MIA questionnaire(Dixon et al., 1988). Research results are as following. 1. After participating in five times memory training programs, experimental group has the significant increase of metamemory in comparison with control group.(t=59.58, p< 0.0001). In particular, the concepts of strategy(t=20.44, p< 0.0001), achievement (t=21.94, p< 0.0001), and locus degree (t=59.58, p< 0.0001) among sub-concepts of the metamemory are increasing significantly. 2, After participating in five time memory training programs, the degree of immediate word recall (t = 17.25, p< 0.0001) and face recognition(t= 16.69, p< 0.0001) among four memory tasks in experimental group are increasing significantly compared with those measures of control group. Considering this results, this metamemory enhancing program was found as an effective nursing program for improvement of meta memory and memory performances of elderly women's memory.
Aged* ; Busan ; Female ; Humans ; Learning ; Memory* ; Nursing ; Verbal Learning

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of virtual reality on the recovery of cognitive impairment in stroke patients. METHOD: Twenty-eight patients (11 males and 17 females, mean age 64.2) with cognitive impairment following stroke were recruited for this study. All patients were randomly assigned to one of two groups, the virtual reality (VR) group (n=15) or the control group (n=13). The VR group received both virtual reality training and computer-based cognitive rehabilitation, whereas the control group received only computer-based cognitive rehabilitation. To measure, activity of daily living cognitive and motor functions, the following assessment tools were used: computerized neuropsychological test and the Tower of London (TOL) test for cognitive function assessment, Korean-Modified Barthel index (K-MBI) for functional status evaluation, and the motricity index (MI) for motor function assessment. All recruited patients underwent these evaluations before rehabilitation and four weeks after rehabilitation. RESULTS: The VR group showed significant improvement in the K-MMSE, visual and auditory continuous performance tests (CPT), forward digit span test (DST), forward and backward visual span tests (VST), visual and verbal learning tests, TOL, K-MBI, and MI scores, while the control group showed significant improvement in the K-MMSE, forward DST, visual and verbal learning tests, trail-making test-type A, TOL, K-MBI, and MI scores after rehabilitation. The changes in the visual CPT and backward VST in the VR group after rehabilitation were significantly higher than those in the control group. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that virtual reality training combined with computer-based cognitive rehabilitation may be of additional benefit for treating cognitive impairment in stroke patients.
Cognition ; Female ; Humans ; London ; Male ; Neuropsychological Tests ; Stroke ; Verbal Learning

OBJECTIVE: To determine the relationship between cognitive-perceptual function and functional independence in stroke patients. METHOD: Thirty-three patients (16 male, 17 female) with first ever ischemic stroke were enrolled. Their mean age was 60.4 years and the mean post-onset duration was 8.1 months. Subjects underwent detailed cognitive assessment including digit span test, line bisection test, Albert test, Wechsler nonverbal memory scale, Korean Hopkins verbal learning Test, Rey complex figure test, and trail making test A. Their functional outcomes were assessed using Functional Independence Measure (FIM) and Modified Barthel Index (MBI). RESULTS: Among the cognitive subtests, Wechsler nonverbal memory scale, Albert test, and Rey complex figure test scores had significant correlation with both FIM and MBI scores. Patients with right hemispheric stroke showed significantly lower scores in line bisection test and Rey complex figure test than those with left hemispheric stroke patients. CONCLUSION: Visuospatial perception and nonverbal memory functions seemed to be two most important cognitive- perceptual domains for functional recovery of stroke patients.
Humans ; Male ; Memory ; Stroke* ; Trail Making Test ; Verbal Learning

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to examine social functioning in patients with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder and explore the psychological and neurophysiological predictors of social functioning. METHODS: Twenty-seven patients with schizophrenia and thirty patients with bipolar disorder, as well as twenty-five healthy controls, completed measures of social functioning (questionnaire of social functioning), neurocognition (Verbal fluency, Korean-Auditory Verbal Learning Test), and social cognition (basic empathy scale and Social Attribution Task-Multiple Choice), and the childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ). For neurophysiological measurements, mismatch negativity and heart rate variability (HRV) were recorded from all participants. Multiple hierarchical regression was performed to explore the impact of factors on social functioning. RESULTS: The results showed that CTQ-emotional neglect significantly predicted social functioning in schizophrenia group, while HRV-high frequency significantly predicted social functioning in bipolar disorder patients. Furthermore, emotional neglect and HRV-HF still predicted social functioning in all of the subjects after controlling for the diagnostic criteria. CONCLUSION: Our results implicated that even though each group has different predictors of social functioning, early traumatic events and HRV could be important indicators of functional outcome irrespective of what group they are.
Bipolar Disorder ; Cognition ; Empathy ; Heart Rate ; Humans ; Schizophrenia ; Verbal Learning

OBJECTIVES: The present study was designed to develop KAVLT (Korean Auditory Verbal Learning Test)and to examine its reliability and validity. The KAVLT is a modified Korean version of RAVLT (Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test) The KAVLT assesses immediate supraspan memory, registration, retention, retrieval, recognition, learning strategy, and interference effect. METHODS: Final version of KAVLT was developed through preliminary trials. The KAVLT was administered to 75 normal healthy adults and 30 organic brain syndrome patients. Twenty-five normal controls were retested 3 weeks after the first trial to examine the test-retest reliability. The scores of basic and combined indices of KAVLT were compared between normal controls and patients. Factor analysis was done to investigate the construct validity. RESULTS: Significant correlations were found between the test-retest scores of most of the basic indices. Discriminant validity which differentiates organic brain syndrome patients from normal controls was excellent. In order to accomplish the structure analysis of the KAVLT, different sets of scores were submitted to factor analysis procedure. Factor analysis of KAVLT basic indices revealed 2 factors, 'aquisition' and 'retention'. In the factor analysis of KAVLT's basic and combined indices, 4 factors emerged: 'general learning', 'retroactive interference', 'proactive interference', and 'primacy/recency effect'. CONCLUSION: The newly developed KAVLT was found to be a reliable and valid tool for evaluating multifactorial assesment of verbal memory and learning in Korean subjects.
Adult ; Brain ; Equidae ; Factor Analysis, Statistical ; Humans ; Learning ; Memory ; Reproducibility of Results ; Verbal Learning*

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study is to examine differences of treatment responses and cognitive functions between typical antipsychotics and Olanzapine in schizophreniac inpatients. METHODS: Ninety-nine patients with schizophrenia treated by Olanzapine (n=56) or typical antipsychotics (n=43) by their attending were included in this study. Prior to entering the study, all subjects did not take any antipsychotics for at least 4 weeks. Cognitive and psychopathological evaluations were carried out on three times: prior to drug assignment immediately after admission (baseline), 3 months and 6 months after starting medications. Cognitive assessments were blinded to medication and psychopathological status. Cognitive functions were examined for sustained attention, sensory register, executive function, concentration and attention, and verbal memory and learning using Degraded Stimulus Continuous Performance Test, Span Apprehension Task, Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, Digit Span, and Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test. RESULTS: The Olanzapine group presented a significantly greater improvement in the perseverative response, perseverative errors, number of completed categories of Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, forward Digit Span, immediate recall of Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, and positive and negative symptomatology than the typical antipsychotic group in the repeated-measures of ANCOVA among baseline, 3 month and 6 month assessments. These cognitive differences remained statistically significant after covarying out changes in symptomatology except forward Digit Span, which was affected by positive symptom in 3 month assessments. CONCLUSION: These data suggest that Olanzapine is associated with significantly greater symptomatic improvement and less cognitive than typical antipsychotics, and its benefits continued after 3 and 6 months of treatment in patients with schizophrenia.
Antipsychotic Agents ; Cognition* ; Executive Function ; Humans ; Inpatients ; Learning ; Memory ; Memory, Short-Term ; Schizophrenia* ; Verbal Learning ; Wisconsin