The dense granule of Toxoplasma gondii is a secretory vesicular organelle of which the proteins participate in the modification of the parasitophorous vacuole (PV) and PV membrane for the maintenance of intracellular parasitism in almost all nucleated host cells. In this review, the archives on the research of GRA proteins are reviewed on the foci of finding GRA proteins, characterizing molecular aspects, usefulness in diagnostic antigen, and vaccine trials in addition to some functions in host-parasite interactions.
Animals ; Antigens, Protozoan/*metabolism ; Cytoplasmic Granules/metabolism ; *Host-Parasite Interactions ; Humans ; Protozoan Proteins/*metabolism ; Toxoplasma/*metabolism ; Toxoplasmosis/*parasitology ; Vacuoles/*metabolism

Toxoplasma gondii is a eukaryotic parasite of the phylum Apicomplexa, which infects all warm-blood animals, including humans. In the present study, we examined sequence variation in dense granule 20 (GRA20) genes among T. gondii isolates collected from different hosts and geographical regions worldwide. The complete GRA20 genes were amplified from 16 T. gondii isolates using PCR, sequence were analyzed, and phylogenetic reconstruction was analyzed by maximum parsimony (MP) and maximum likelihood (ML) methods. The results showed that the complete GRA20 gene sequence was 1,586 bp in length among all the isolates used in this study, and the sequence variations in nucleotides were 0-7.9% among all strains. However, removing the type III strains (CTG, VEG), the sequence variations became very low, only 0-0.7%. These results indicated that the GRA20 sequence in type III was more divergence. Phylogenetic analysis of GRA20 sequences using MP and ML methods can differentiate 2 major clonal lineage types (type I and type III) into their respective clusters, indicating the GRA20 gene may represent a novel genetic marker for intraspecific phylogenetic analyses of T. gondii.
Animals ; Base Sequence ; Brazil ; China ; Deer ; *Genetic Variation ; Genotype ; Goats ; Humans ; Molecular Sequence Data ; Phylogeny ; Protozoan Proteins/*genetics/metabolism ; Sheep ; Swine ; Toxoplasma/classification/*genetics/isolation & purification/parasitology/physiology ; Toxoplasmosis/*parasitology ; Toxoplasmosis, Animal/*parasitology ; United States

Several studies have shown the mechanisms and importance of immune responses against Toxoplasma gondii infection and the notable role of cholinesterases in inflammatory reactions. However, the association between those factors has not yet been investigated. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in blood and lymphocytes and the activity of butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) in serum of rats experimentally infected with T. gondii during the acute phase of infection. For that, an in vivo study was performed with evaluations of AChE and BChE activities on days 5 and 10 post-infection (PI). The activity of AChE in blood was increased on day 5 PI, while in lymphocytes its activity was enhanced on days 5 and 10 PI (P<0.05). No significant difference was observed between groups regarding to the activity of BChE in serum. A positive (P<0.01) correlation was observed between AChE activity and number of lymphocytes. The role of AChE as an inflammatory marker is well known in different pathologies; thus, our results lead to the hypothesis that AChE has an important role in modulation of early immune responses against T. gondii infection.
Acetylcholinesterase/blood/*metabolism ; Animals ; Butyrylcholinesterase/blood/*metabolism ; Humans ; Lymphocytes/enzymology/parasitology ; Male ; Rats ; Rats, Wistar ; Toxoplasma/*physiology ; Toxoplasmosis/*enzymology/genetics/parasitology

Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite of the phylum Apicomplexa, can infect all warm-blooded vertebrates, including humans, livestock, and marine mammals. The aim of this study was to investigate whether superoxide dismutase (SOD) of T. gondii can be used as a new marker for genetic study or a potential vaccine candidate. The partial genome region of the SOD gene was amplified and sequenced from 10 different T. gondii isolates from different parts of the world, and all the sequences were examined by PCR-RFLP, sequence analysis, and phylogenetic reconstruction. The results showed that partial SOD gene sequences ranged from 1,702 bp to 1,712 bp and A + T contents varied from 50.1% to 51.1% among all examined isolates. Sequence alignment analysis identified total 43 variable nucleotide positions, and these results showed that 97.5% sequence similarity of SOD gene among all examined isolates. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these SOD sequences were not an effective molecular marker for differential identification of T. gondii strains. The research demonstrated existence of low sequence variation in the SOD gene among T. gondii strains of different genotypes from different hosts and geographical regions.
Amino Acid Sequence ; Animals ; Base Sequence ; Cats ; *Genetic Variation ; Goats ; Humans ; Molecular Sequence Data ; Phylogeny ; Protozoan Proteins/chemistry/*genetics/metabolism ; Sequence Alignment ; Sheep ; Superoxide Dismutase/chemistry/*genetics/metabolism ; Toxoplasma/classification/*enzymology/genetics/isolation & purification ; Toxoplasmosis/*parasitology ; Toxoplasmosis, Animal/*parasitology

OBJECTIVETo investigate the influence of acute Toxoplasma gondii infection on the reproductive function of male mice.

METHODSTwenty-six adult male mice were randomized into an infection and a control group of equal number. Acute Toxoplasma gondii infection was induced in the testes of the former, while abdominal injection of normal saline given to the latter. Cell imprints and pathological sections were obtained to observe the pathological changes and Toxoplasma gondii invasion in the spermatogenic cells and to compare the testicular LDH-X, sperm concentration and motility and the number of deformed spermatozoa between the two groups.

RESULTSThe testicular LDH-X, sperm concentration and motility and the number of deformed spermatozoa were 53.19 +/- 18.04, (15.01 +/- 2.42) x 10(6)/ ml, (8.26 +/- 2.57) % and (17.69 +/- 11.91) % in the infection group, as compared with 68.71 +/- 17.79, (23.87 +/- 6.66) x 10(6)/ ml, (13.21 +/- 2.82) % and (11.30 +/- 6.60) % in the control, with significant differences between the two groups (P < 0 05).

CONCLUSIONAcute Toxoplasma gondii infection affects the reproductive function of male mice.

Acute Disease ; Animals ; Isoenzymes ; metabolism ; L-Lactate Dehydrogenase ; metabolism ; Male ; Mice ; Random Allocation ; Sperm Count ; Sperm Motility ; physiology ; Testis ; metabolism ; parasitology ; pathology ; Toxoplasmosis ; metabolism ; physiopathology

We studied on the proteomic characteristics of Toxoplasma gondii KI-1 tachyzoites which were originally isolated from a Korean patient, and compared with those of the well-known virulent RH strain using 2-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE), mass spectrometry, and quantitative real-time PCR. Two-dimensional separation of the total proteins isolated from KI-1 tachyzoites revealed up to 150 spots, of which 121 were consistent with those of RH tachyzoites. Of the remaining 29 spots, 14 showed greater than 5-fold difference in density between the KI-1 and RH tachyzoites at a pH of 5.0-8.0. Among the 14 spots, 5 from the KI-1 isolate and 7 from the RH strain were identified using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and database searches. The spots from the KI-1 tachyzoites were dense granule proteins (GRA 2, 3, 6, and 7), hypoxanthine-guanine-xanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (HGRPTase), and uracil phosphoribosyltransferase (UPRTase). The spots from the RH strain were surface antigen 1 (SAG 1), L-lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), actin, chorismate synthase, peroximal catalase, hexokinase, bifunctional dihydrofolate reductase-thymidylate synthase (DHTR-TS), and nucleoside-triphosphatases (NTPases). Quantitative real-time PCR supported our mass spectrometric results by showing the elevated expression of the genes encoding GRA 2, 3, and 6 and UPRTase in the KI-1 tachyzoites and those encoding GRA 7, SAG 1, NTPase, and chorismate synthase in the RH tachyzoites. These observations demonstrate that the protein compositions of KI-1 and RH tachyzoites are similar but differential protein expression is involved in virulence.
Electrophoresis, Gel, Two-Dimensional ; Gene Expression Regulation, Developmental ; Humans ; Molecular Sequence Data ; *Proteomics ; Protozoan Proteins/chemistry/*genetics/metabolism ; Toxoplasma/chemistry/*genetics/*growth & development/metabolism ; Toxoplasmosis/parasitology

Toxoplasma gondii can modulate host cell gene expression; however, determining gene expression levels in intermediate hosts after T. gondii infection is not known much. We selected 5 genes (ALDH1A2, BEX2, CCL3, EGR2 and PLAU) and compared the mRNA expression levels in the spleen, liver, lung and small intestine of genetically different mice infected with T. gondii. ALDH1A2 mRNA expressions of both mouse strains were markedly increased at day 1-4 postinfection (PI) and then decreased, and its expressions in the spleen and lung were significantly higher in C57BL/6 mice than those of BALB/c mice. BEX2 and CCR3 mRNA expressions of both mouse strains were significantly increased from day 7 PI and peaked at day 15-30 PI (P<0.05), especially high in the spleen liver or small intestine of C57BL/6 mice. EGR2 and PLAU mRNA expressions of both mouse strains were significantly increased after infection, especially high in the spleen and liver. However, their expression patterns were varied depending on the tissue and mouse strain. Taken together, T. gondii-susceptible C57BL/6 mice expressed higher levels of these 5 genes than did T. gondii-resistant BALB/c mice, particularly in the spleen and liver. And ALDH1A2 and PLAU expressions were increased acutely, whereas BEX2, CCL3 and EGR2 expressions were increased lately. Thus, these demonstrate that host genetic factors exert a strong impact on the expression of these 5 genes and their expression patterns were varied depending on the gene or tissue.
Aldehyde Dehydrogenase/*genetics/metabolism ; Animals ; Brain/metabolism/parasitology ; Chemokine CCL3/*genetics/metabolism ; Early Growth Response Protein 2/*genetics/metabolism ; Gene Expression Profiling ; Humans ; Lung/metabolism/parasitology ; Mice ; Mice, Inbred BALB C ; Mice, Inbred C57BL ; Mice, Inbred Strains ; Nerve Tissue Proteins/*genetics/metabolism ; Organ Specificity ; Spleen/metabolism/virology ; Toxoplasma/*physiology ; Toxoplasmosis/*genetics/metabolism/parasitology ; Urokinase-Type Plasminogen Activator/*genetics/metabolism

Toxoplasma gondii penetrates all kinds of nucleated eukaryotic cells but modulates host cells differently for its intracellular survival. In a previous study, we found out that serine protease inhibitors B3 and B4 (SERPIN B3/B4 because of their very high homology) were significantly induced in THP-1-derived macrophages infected with T. gondii through activation of STAT6. In this study, to evaluate the effects of the induced SERPIN B3/B4 on the apoptosis of T. gondii-infected THP-1 cells, we designed and tested various small interfering (si-) RNAs of SERPIN B3 or B4 in staurosporine-induced apoptosis of THP-1 cells. Anti-apoptotic characteristics of THP-1 cells after infection with T. gondii disappeared when SERPIN B3/B4 were knock-downed with gene specific si-RNAs transfected into THP-1 cells as detected by the cleaved caspase 3, poly-ADP ribose polymerase and DNA fragmentation. This anti-apoptotic effect was confirmed in SERPIN B3/B4 overexpressed HeLa cells. We also investigated whether inhibition of STAT6 affects the function of SERPIN B3/B4, and vice versa. Inhibition of SERPIN B3/B4 did not influence STAT6 expression but SERPIN B3/B4 expression was inhibited by STAT6 si-RNA transfection, which confirmed that SERPIN B3/B4 was induced under the control of STAT6 activation. These results suggest that T. gondii induces SERPIN B3/B4 expression via STAT6 activation to inhibit the apoptosis of infected THP-1 cells for longer survival of the intracellular parasites themselves.
Animals ; Antigens, Neoplasm/genetics/*metabolism ; *Apoptosis ; Cell Line ; DNA Fragmentation ; Humans ; Macrophages/*cytology/metabolism ; Mice ; Mice, Inbred BALB C ; STAT6 Transcription Factor/genetics/*metabolism ; Serpins/genetics/*metabolism ; Toxoplasma/genetics/*physiology ; Toxoplasmosis/genetics/*metabolism/parasitology/*physiopathology

Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic protozoan parasite that can infect almost all warm-blooded animals including humans with a worldwide distribution. Micronemes play an important role in invasion process of T. gondii, associated with the attachment, motility, and host cell recognition. In this research, sequence diversity in microneme protein 6 (MIC6) gene among 16 T. gondii isolates from different hosts and geographical regions and 1 reference strain was examined. The results showed that the sequence of all the examined T. gondii strains was 1,050 bp in length, and their A + T content was between 45.7% and 46.1%. Sequence analysis presented 33 nucleotide mutation positions (0-1.1%), resulting in 23 amino acid substitutions (0-2.3%) aligned with T. gondii RH strain. Moreover, T. gondii strains representing the 3 classical genotypes (Type I, II, and III) were separated into different clusters based on the locus of MIC6 using phylogenetic analyses by Bayesian inference (BI), maximum parsimony (MP), and maximum likelihood (ML), but T. gondii strains belonging to ToxoDB #9 were separated into different clusters. Our results suggested that MIC6 gene is not a suitable marker for T. gondii population genetic studies.
Amino Acid Sequence ; Animals ; Base Sequence ; Cats ; Cell Adhesion Molecules/chemistry/*genetics/metabolism ; Deer ; *Genetic Variation ; Genotype ; Goats ; Humans ; Molecular Sequence Data ; Phylogeny ; Protozoan Proteins/chemistry/*genetics/metabolism ; Sequence Alignment ; Sheep ; Swine ; Toxoplasma/classification/*genetics/isolation & purification/physiology ; Toxoplasmosis/*parasitology ; Toxoplasmosis, Animal/*parasitology

A monoclonal antibody against Toxoplasma gondii of Tg556 clone (Tg556) blotted a 29 kDa protein, which was localized in the dense granules of tachyzoites and secreted into the parasitophorous vacuolar membrane (PVM) after infection to host cells. A cDNA fragment encoding the protein was obtained by screening a T. gondii cDNA expression library with Tg556, and the full-length was completed by 5'-RACE of 2,086 bp containing an open reading frame (ORF) of 669 bp. The ORF encoded a polypeptide of 222 amino acids homologous to the revised GRA3 but not to the first reported one. The polypeptide has 3 hydrophobic moieties of an N-terminal stop transfer sequence and 2 transmembrane domains (TMD) in posterior half of the sequence, a cytoplasmic localization motif after the second TMD and an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) retrival motif in the C-terminal end, which suggests GRA3 as a type III transmembrane protein. With the ORF of GRA3, yeast two-hybrid assay was performed in HeLa cDNA expression library, which resulted in the interaction of GRA3 with calcium modulating ligand (CAMLG), a type II transmembrane protein of ER. The specific binding of GRA3 and CAMLG was confirmed by glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down and immunoprecipitation assays. The localities of fluorescence transfectionally expressed from GRA3 and CAMLG plasmids were overlapped completely in HeLa cell cytoplasm. In immunofluorescence assay, GRA3 and CAMLG were shown to be co-localized in the PVM of host cells. Structural binding of PVM-inserted GRA3 to CAMLG of ER suggested the receptor-ligand of ER recruitment to PVM during the parasitism of T. gondii.
Adaptor Proteins, Signal Transducing/*metabolism ; Amino Acid Sequence ; Animals ; Endoplasmic Reticulum/*metabolism ; Hela Cells ; Host-Parasite Interactions ; Humans ; Molecular Sequence Data ; Protozoan Proteins/chemistry/genetics/*metabolism ; Toxoplasma/*physiology ; Toxoplasmosis/metabolism/parasitology